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63
XIV/1/2023
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
Archaeobotanical Evidence of Funerary Plant Oferings at the Southern
Etrurian Necropolis of “Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano” (Rome, Italy)
Claudia Moricca
1*
, Alessio De Cristofaro
2
, Laura Ambrosini
3
1
Department of Environmental Biology, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
2
Soprintendenza Speciale Archeologia Belle Arti e Paesaggio di Roma, Piazza dei Cinquecento 67, 00185 Rome, Italy
3
Istituto di Scienze del Patrimonio Culturale, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Strada Provinciale 35d, 9, 00010 Montelibretti (RM), Italy
1. Introduction
Etruscans are a non-Indo-European population of preclassical
Italy, whose culture developed between the 7
th
and the 3
rd
centuries BC in central Italy (Vernesi
et al.
, 2004). While
Etruria
sensu strictu
is framed by the rivers Arno and
Tiber, the commercial and political expansion of Etruscans
reached the Po Valley (north) and Campania
(south; Bianchi
Bandinelli and Torelli, 2008; Stoddart
et al.
, 2019). Their
cities were independent city-states that shared a religion
and a language. While the Etruscan culture is believed to
have developed locally, archaeological evidence suggests
an eastern infuence (Vernesi
et al.
, 2004).
Etruscan human-plant relations are still under-explored,
with archaeobotanical studies often being restricted to single
contexts and published as short sections in archaeological
reports. The Brain network and database (Mercuri
et al.
,
2015; Mariotti Lippi
et al.
, 2018) has proved to be a useful
tool to perform bibliographic research, allowing the quick
identifcation of relevant publications. To our knowledge,
only ten Etrurian archaeological sites have been studied
in terms of plant remains (Mercuri
et al.
, 2015; Figure 1).
Of these, Pyrgi (Coccolini and Follieri, 1980), Tarquinia
(Rottoli, 2005), Veio (Celant, 2009), Vulci (Marchesini
et al.
, 2014) are found in Latium. This selection is expanded
by also considering the sites in the Po Valley, such as the
settlement of Arginone in Mirandola (Accorsi
et al.
, 1992),
and Campania (
e.g.
, Fratte – Colaianni
et al.
, 2009). Another
distinction can be made based on the type of context, with
plant remains from funerary contexts being studied only in
Petriolo (Milanesi, 2018), Tarquinia (Rottoli, 2005), Vulci
(Marchesini
et al.
, 2014) and Verucchio (Marchesini and
Marvelli, 2002; Sala and Rottoli, 2018).
1.1 The necropolis of “Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano”
The present study concerns the archaeobotanical analysis of
soil sediments and vase fllings from Etruscan tombs from
the Necropolis of “Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano”, found
Volume XIV ● Issue 1/2023 ● Pages 63–70
*Corresponding author. E-mail: claudia.moricca@uniroma1.it
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 7
th
November 2022
Accepted: 5
th
January 2023
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24916/iansa.2023.1.4
Key words:
Etruscans
archaeobotany
carpology
anthracology
central Italy
necropolis
ABSTRACT
The present study concerns the archaeobotanical analysis of soil samples and vase fllings from
Etruscan tombs from the Necropolis of “Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano”, found along
via di Boccea
,
north of Rome (Italy). While the site was in use between the Archaic and Late Roman Age, the studied
vestibule tombs belong to the Etruscan necropolis (second half of the 6
th
– beginning of the 4
th
centuries
BC). Archaeological data, based on the incineration rite and funerary equipment, suggest that these
were used by one high-status family (or two) originally from Veio.
Carpological analyses reveal the presence of food plants comprised of cereals, pulses and fruits.
Furthermore, anthracological data give indications concerning the past environment, with a prevalence
of deciduous and semi-deciduous oaks, accompanied by other taxa such as evergreen oaks, hornbeam,
ash and Rosaceae Prunoideae. This is in accordance with the present-day vegetation of northern
Latium. Finally, remains of synanthropic weeds (
e.g.
, Asteraceae, Caryophyllaceae and Polygonaceae)
suggest a heavily anthropized environment.
This study represents a step forward in the understanding of the still under-explored human-plant
interactions of Etruscans.
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IANSA 2023 ● XIV/1 ● 63–70
Claudia Moricca, Alessio De Cristofaro, Laura Ambrosini: Archaeobotanical Evidence of Funerary Plant Oferings at the Southern Etrurian Necropolis
of “Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano” (Rome, Italy)
64
in the proximity of km 11,500 of
via di Boccea
, north of
Rome (Italy). The site was identifed during archaeological
excavations carried out between 2011 and 2014 with the
aim of performing preliminary verifcations of building
projects (De Cristofaro
et al.
, 2015). The use of the small
but meaningful site is framed between the Archaic Age
and the Late Roman Age (7
th
–1
st
centuries BC). Of specifc
interest for this study is an area south of the natural canal,
intended for funerary use for a sepulchral district. Such
a nucleus includes six “vestibule” tombs, dated between the
end of the 6
th
and the beginning of the 4
th
century BC. All
the investigated burials observe the incineration rite. The
remains were found collected in clay vessels, in a cloth or in
a perishable container, placed directly on the bottom of the
relative niche. The spatial disposition of the tombs – four of
which are very close and almost tangential, with the same
orientation and side by side to form a single row, having rich
funerary equipment (including a bronze bowl, glass paste
balsam, a bronze mirror, a bronze strigil), and the use of
the incineration rite suggest that they belonged to one (or
possibly two) high-status families originally from Veio (De
Cristofaro
et al.
, 2015).
2. Materials and Methods
Sediment, including vase and
bucchero
chalice
fllings,
was collected from eight diferent tombs (V, VI a, VI b, VI
d, VI d5, XIX a, XX a, and XX b) during the excavation
work giving a total of 15 soil samples. Sediment from the
stratigraphic units (SU) 62/160 belongs to Tomb XX, part a
and part b. Nonetheless, a sample strictly from SU 160 was
also collected. The soil samples were then stored at the deposit
of the Drugstore Museum in
via Portuense 317
(Rome, Italy)
until 2020 when they were brought to the Laboratory of
Archaeobotany and Palynology at “Sapienza” University of
Rome. Here, a known volume (11.7 l in total) of these soil
sediments was processed through bucket fotation. Charred
macro-remains foating on the water surface were collected
on a 250 μm sieve. The remaining sediment was then water-
sieved, using a 1 mm mesh, to retrieve any additional plant
(for example, preserved through mineralisation) or animal
remains. Once dry, samples were sieved on a series of nested
sieves of mesh size 5, 2, 1 mm (and 0.5 mm in the case of the
light fraction) to make hand-picking more efcient.
2.1 Carpological remains
Carpological remains were observed using a Leica M205C
stereomicroscope (magnifcation range 7.8× – 160×). High-
resolution images were acquired through a Leica IC80
HD camera and the Leica Application Suite version 4.5.0
software and subsequently merged using Helicon Focus
(version 6.6.1 Pro) to obtain well-focused images over the
entire surface.
Identifcation of carpological remains was performed
through a series of atlases (Jacomet, 2006; Neef
et al.
,
2012; Cappers and Bekker, 2013; Nesbitt, 2016; Sabato
and Peña-Chocarro, 2021). The Euro+Med PlantBase
Figure 1.
The geographical setting of the
archaeological sites mentioned in the text:
1. Mirandola – Arginone; 2. Verucchio;
3. Prato Rosello; 4. Cetamura del Chianti;
5. Follonica; 6. Pian D’Alma; 7. Vetulonia;
8. Chiusi; 9. Vulci; 10. Tarquinia; 11. Pyrgi;
12. Veio; 13. Fratte. Starred: Necropolis of
Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano.
0 100 km
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IANSA 2023 ● XIV/1 ● 63–70
Claudia Moricca, Alessio De Cristofaro, Laura Ambrosini: Archaeobotanical Evidence of Funerary Plant Oferings at the Southern Etrurian Necropolis
of “Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano” (Rome, Italy)
65
(2006+continuously updated) database was used as
a reference for the nomenclature. It was not always possible
to carry out identifcation to a species level due to either the
state of conservation of the remains or, in the case of weeds,
due to the multitude of species with similar characteristics
within the same family, and the small amount of remains
(which do not allow evaluation of the interspecifc variety).
2.2 Anthracological remains
Charcoal fragments >2 mm were analysed following the
diagnostic sections of wood (transversal, tangential, and radial)
under a Nomarski microscope (phase contrast microscope
with diferential interference contrast). Their morphological
characteristics were interpreted using atlases (Schweingruber,
1990; for
Quercus
taxa: Cambini, 1967). The nomenclature of
Quercus
species follows Cambini (1967).
3. Results
All extracted plant remains were preserved by charring, the
most common modality of fossilisation in the Mediterranean
basin (Renfrew, 1973). Anthracological remains were found
in eleven processed sediment samples, while seeds/fruits
were present in only fve. Four samples turned out to be
devoid of plant macro-remains.
A total of 469 charcoal fragments were studied, belonging
to 10 diferent taxa (Table 1). The most numerous ones are
represented by
Quercus
sect.
cerris
(semi-deciduous oaks –
234 fragments) and
Quercus
sect.
robur
(deciduous oaks –
135 fragments).
Quercus
sect.
cerris
is also the taxon with
the highest ubiquity (81.8%). Other taxa include, in order
of abundance,
Quercus
sp. (oaks – 51 fragments),
Ostrya
/
Carpinus
sp. (11 fragments), and
Ostrya carpinifolia
Scop.
Figure 2.
Carpological remains from the necropolis of Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano. From right to left – top row:
Triticum aestivum/durum
,
Ficus
carica
,
Rubus
sp.; middle row:
Avena
sp., Caryophyllaceae,
Portulaca oleracea
; bottom row:
Anthemis
sp., Brassicaceae, Polygonaceae. Scale bar: 0.5 mm.
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Claudia Moricca, Alessio De Cristofaro, Laura Ambrosini: Archaeobotanical Evidence of Funerary Plant Oferings at the Southern Etrurian Necropolis
of “Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano” (Rome, Italy)
66
Table 1. Anthracological assemblage of the studied samples. The * indicates that the sediment belongs to two stratigraphic units.
Tomb
V
Tomb
VI a
Tomb
VI d
Tomb
VI d5
Tomb
XX a
Tomb
XX b
Tomb
XX a/b
Stratigraphic unit (SU)/locus
27N.D.Vase #1Bucchero chalice455116062154
62/160
A*
62/160
B*
Volume (l)0.60.11.50.50.60.210.211.50.9
Concentration (charcoal fr./l)21.(6)710694121.(6)22017710231.(3)8.(8)
5 mm 2 mm5 mm 2 mm2 mm5 mm 2 mm 5 mm5 mm5 mm2 mm5 mm2 mm2 mmTOTAL
Fraxinus
sp.
11
Monocotyledons
22 2 6
Ostrya carpinifolia
1 6 2
9
Ostrya
/
Carpinus
2 3 2
4
11
Quercus
deciduous
2632
25
162
48
13
135
Quercus
semi-deciduous
2121116
7
62
38102
11
234
Quercus
evergreen
1211
5
Quercus
sp.
11
7
1
4
1
104514
3
51
Rosaceae Prunoideae
1 1
Indet.
121 3 116 116
TOTAL
584229925
22
7344177
2232
8469
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Claudia Moricca, Alessio De Cristofaro, Laura Ambrosini: Archaeobotanical Evidence of Funerary Plant Oferings at the Southern Etrurian Necropolis
of “Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano” (Rome, Italy)
67
Table 2.
Carpological assemblage of the studied samples. The * indicates that the sediment belongs to two stratigraphic units.
Tomb
V
Tomb
VI d
Tomb
XX a
Tomb
XX a/b A
Stratigraphic unit (SU)/locusVase #1N.D.4516060/162*
Volume (l)1.50.10.611.5
Concentration (remains/l)341041.(6)20.(6)TOTAL
CEREALS
Triticum
aestivum/durum
caryopsis55
Cereals indet.caryopsis fragment
16
2541
PULSES
Pulses indet.
cotyledon11
FRUITS
Ficus carica
achene11
Rubus sp.
endocarp11
WEEDS/SPONTANEOUS PLANTS
Anthemis sp.
fruit11
Asteraceae indet.
fruit112
Avena sp.
caryopsis
11
Brassicaceae indet.seed
22
Caryophyllaceae indet.seed88
Fabaceae indet.seed
11
Poaceae indet.caryopsis fragment
33
Polygonaceae indet.seed55
Portulaca oleracea
seed
11
Indet.
61
7
TOTAL
51
1
25
21
80
(European hop-hornbeam – 9 fragments). The sample
from SU 160 (Tomb XX a) is the richest in charcoal pieces
(177 fragments).
Carpological remains amount to a total of 80 fndings,
belonging to 14 diferent taxa (Table 2). These are
represented by cereals (Cereals indet. – 41 caryopses
fragments), including naked wheats (
Triticum aestivum/
durum
– 5 caryopses; Figure 2), pulses (1 cotyledon), fgs
(
Ficus carica
L. – 1 achene; Figure 2), berries (
Rubus
sp.
– 1 endocarp; Figure 2), and numerous spontaneous plants
(
e.g.
, Asteraceae, Caryophyllaceae and Polygonaceae).
4. Discussion
The preservation of plant remains exclusively by charring
in the investigated contexts is coherent with the incineration
rite practiced in the necropolis of “Valle Santa nell’Agro
Veientano” (De Cristofaro
et al.
, 2015). The same rite could
also be responsible for the lack of plant remains in fve of
the processed samples, as combustion could have proceeded
further, turning all plant material into ash. The type of
container used to store the remains in the tombs does not
appear to infuence the concentration of plant remains in
the sample. For example, the sample richest in carpological
remains is represented by the flling of a ceramic vase in
Tomb V. However, the sediment from Tomb VI d (where
a perishable container is believed to have been used) presents
a higher concentration of carpological remains per litre
of sediment (41.7 vs. 34 remains/l). The use of perishable
containers could nonetheless infuence the anthracological
assemblage. Archaeological and archaeobotanical data
suggest that these could have been made from wood or be
represented by woven baskets (De Cristofaro
et al.
, 2015).
For instance, incinerated remains in Tomb VI d could have
been stored in a box made of
Quercus
sect.
cerris
, as this
taxon was very abundant in the studied sample. Similarly,
the numerous charcoal fragments in
Quercus
sect.
robur
in
Tomb XX b, could represent pieces of the box used to store
the incinerated remains.
4.1 Funerary oferings
More detailed information about funerary rituals can be
obtained by analysing the carpological assemblages. The
sample richest in seeds/fruits is represented by the flling of
vase 1 in Tomb V. Here, numerous fndings of edible species
were recovered. These are represented by fve caryopses
of naked wheats (
Triticum aestivum/durum
), 16 caryopsis
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IANSA 2023 ● XIV/1 ● 63–70
Claudia Moricca, Alessio De Cristofaro, Laura Ambrosini: Archaeobotanical Evidence of Funerary Plant Oferings at the Southern Etrurian Necropolis
of “Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano” (Rome, Italy)
68
fragments of cereals (that could not be better identifed due
to the poor state of preservation), a cotyledon of a legume and
a fg achene. Twenty-fve burnt cereal caryopsis fragments
were also recovered in the flling of Tomb VI d (SU 45).
Finally, a
Rubus
sp. endocarp was found in the flling of
Tomb XX. Considering the concentration of these fndings in
small volumes of sediment, the remains of cereals, pulses, and
edible fruits could be associated with food oferings. While
only cereals can be interpreted as voluntary food oferings, the
other records could have accidentally fallen into the containers.
Nonetheless, palynological and anthracological evidence
seems to suggest a similar funerary ritual at the
necropolis
of Vulci, where funerary oferings appear to be comprised of
cereals, fava beans and grapevine (Marchesini
et al.
, 2014).
An even richer assemblage was recorded in tomb 12/2005 at
Verucchio, where a wider set of cereals, pulses and fruits was
found (Sala and Rottoli, 2018). The deposition of food plants
is also attested at Tarquinia in the sacred “Area Alpha”, where
the retrieval of cereals, legumes, and fruits, along with animal
bones in two pots, seems to be related to the monumental
nature of the area (Rottoli, 2005).
The retrieval of a common purslane seed (
Portulaca
oleracea
L.; Figure 2) from a soil sample from Tomb V is
more problematic. Although it represents an edible species
consumed in diferent parts of the world (Danin
et al.
, 2013),
common purslane is also known as a synanthropic species,
growing on rich and fertilised soils (Nakhutsrishvili, 2012).
In this case, more than a single seed is needed to interpret it
as a food ofering.
Pictorial evidence from Etruscan tombs can help to
interpret archaeobotanical data in terms of plant availability
and funerary rituals. For example, on the right wall of
the Tomb of the Triclinium (470 BC) in the
Monterozzi
necropolis, it is possible to admire the depiction of a fg tree
(Colletti, 2016). This allows one to hypothesise that this
plant had a ritual meaning. Mural paintings, such as those
of Golini Tomb I near Orvieto (ca. 350 BC), can also help
to obtain information concerning banquets; in this case, it is
possible to recognise fat breads, pomegranates, and grapes
(Cocomazzi, 2008; Della Fina, 2019). A depiction of bread
is also present on the Belly Amphora by the Andokides
Painter (520–510 BC), discovered at Vulci and stored in
the Staatliche Antikensammlungen in Munich (inventory
number 2301). The hypothesis can be advanced that cereals
were donated as a primary product to produce bread. Other
plants often depicted in Etruscan funerary contexts are olive
trees, myrtle, laurel, and ivy (Cerchiai, 1995; Colletti, 2016).
Some fnal considerations can be made based on the
ceramic assemblage that accompanied the plant remains in
the necropolis of “Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano”. Here,
one or more ceramic containers were retrieved in each tomb,
such as a
bucchero
chalice (tomb VI a), a miniature
bucchero
chalice and a brown clay plate (tomb VI c), a fragmentary
plate (tomb VI d), and a clay plate (tomb XIX b). These
could be related to the practice of food ofering.
Other observations related to rituals concern the choice
of timber for the funeral pyres, represented mostly by
deciduous and semi-deciduous oaks. This contrasts with the
data from the tombs in Vulci (Marchesini
et al.
, 2014), where
evergreen oaks prevail.
4.2 Past environment
Anthracological remains are useful for obtaining information
about the procurement of raw materials and past vegetation.
Currently, the fora of Northern Latium is characterised by
the presence of
Quercus cerris
L. and
Quercus frainetto
Ten.
Forests on sandy substrates, related to the signifcant water
availability in these soils. In the areas where the substrate
is clayey, other types of deciduous oaks are also present,
such as
Q. virgiliana
Mill. And, locally,
Q. robur
L. (Blasi
and Biondi, 2017). In terms of wood anatomy,
Q. frainetto
,
Q. virgiliana
and
Q. robur
can be grouped as
Quercus
section
robur
(deciduous oaks), while
Quercus cerris
belongs to
Quercus
section
cerris
(semi-deciduous oaks; Cambini,
1967). Considering the frequency of deciduous and semi-
deciduous oak charcoal fragments in the analysed samples,
it is possible to hypothesise that the environment surrounding
the archaeological site was similar to the present-day one,
and that the timber was of local provenance. An abundance
of deciduous oaks has also been documented in other
Etruscan sites, such as Cetamura del Chianti (Mariotti Lippi
et al.
, 2020), Chiusi (Costantini
et al.
, 2009), Pian D’Alma
(Mariotti Lippi
et al.
, 2002) and Vetulonia (Coradeschi
et al.
,
2021), supporting the hypothesis that, in the frst millennium
BC, the woody fora composition was similar to the modern
one in Etruria.
Past and present environments can also be compared by
looking at other arboreal taxa. These include evergreen oaks
(
Quercus
sect.
suber
), such as
Quercus ilex
L. (holm oak),
currently present near the coastal strip of Upper Latium
and Southern Tuscany (Blasi and Biondi, 2017). Similar
consideration can be made for the charcoal fragments of
Fraxinus
sp. (ash tree),
Ostrya carpinifolia
Scop. (European
hop-hornbeam),
Ostrya
/
Carpinus
(hornbeam) and Rosaceae
Prunoideae, which nowadays form part of the fora of Upper
Latium, particularly in level and semi-level areas, where they
are conditioned by the dynamics of the agricultural system
(Blasi and Biondi, 2017). Finally, it is possible to distinguish
an herbaceous component (Monocotyledons), reduced to
a few species, that are difcult to distinguish based only on
the anatomy of the stem. A similar anthracological assemblage
was identifed in two wells near Temple A at the nearby site of
Pyrgi, where numerous fragments of deciduous and evergreen
oaks are accompanied by riparian taxa such as
Fraxinus cf.
ornus
,
Salix
sp. and
Ulmus
sp. (Coccolini and Follieri, 1980).
Further information regarding the environment of the past
can be provided by the presence of wild plants. Among these
we fnd oats (
Avena
sp.; Figure 2), whose wild or cultivated
state is difcult to determine with certainty on solely
archaeobotanical remains. Some species of the genus
Avena
are typically interpreted as weeds of cultivated felds (Fuller
and Stevens, 2019).
Synanthropic taxa also include
Anthemis
sp. (Figure 2)
and several species of the Asteraceae, Brassicaceae
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IANSA 2023 ● XIV/1 ● 63–70
Claudia Moricca, Alessio De Cristofaro, Laura Ambrosini: Archaeobotanical Evidence of Funerary Plant Oferings at the Southern Etrurian Necropolis
of “Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano” (Rome, Italy)
69
(Figure 2), Caryophyllaceae (Figure 2), Fabaceae, Poaceae
and Polygonaceae (Figure 2) families (Drozdova
et al.
,
2019; Piqué
et al.
, 2021; Sadori
et al.
, 2010) identifed in
the studied contexts. These suggest a heavily anthropized
environment. Unfortunately, the amount of information that
can be obtained from these taxa is limited, as a more precise
identifcation of the remains was not possible. Nonetheless,
human presence and exploitation of the environment at
“Valle Santa nell’Agro Veientano” is also attested by traces
of viticultural cultivation detected during the archaeological
excavations of the site (De Cristofaro
et al.
, 2015).
5. Conclusions
The present study represents the frst attempt at reconstructing
human-plant relations at the
necropolis
of “Valle Santa
nell’Agro Veientano”. Here, archaeobotanical data provide
insights into the human-plant relations of the Etruscans,
including aspects related to funerary rituals. These appear to
have included oferings of naked wheats and other cereals,
pulses, and fruits. A preference for deciduous and semi-
deciduous oaks in their funeral pyres suggests the use of
local timber.
Important information can be gathered concerning the past
vegetation surrounding the studied site. The anthracological
data allow a description of an environment surrounding
the archaeological site that is similar to the modern one,
dominated by semi-deciduous and deciduous oaks. Other
taxa include evergreen oaks (presumably
Q. ilex
), ash trees,
hornbeams and Rosaceae Prunoideae. This is also consistent
with other archaeobotanical data available in the area in the
same timeframe. The environmental image of the 6
th
–4
th
century BC Valle Santa is completed by the retrieval of
spontaneous plants attributable to synanthropic taxa, whose
presence provides records of anthropic activity.
Overall, the present study provides new information
regarding the Etruscans and their plants, enriching our
knowledge of their ritual sphere and past environment.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to the anonymous reviewers,
whose constructive comments were crucial for improving
the form and content of the manuscript. We would also like
to acknowledge the
Soprintendenza Speciale Archeologia
Belle Arti e Paesaggio di Roma
for allowing us to study the
materials and publish our results.
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