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105
XIV/1/2023
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
Application of Phytolith (Microbiomorphic) and Non-Pollen Palynomorph
Analyses to the Geoarchaeological Study of the Graft Farmyard,
the Netherlands
Olga Druzhinina
1,2*+
, Dario Hruševar
3+
, Kasper Jurgen van den Berghe
1
, Nancy de Jong-Lambregts
4
,
Alexandra Golyeva
5
, Koraljka Bakrač
6
, Božena Mitić
3
1
FindX Research Company, Palestrinalaan Laan 1157, 8031VK Zwolle, the Netherlands
2
Institute of Oriental Stidies Russian Academy of Sciences, Rozhdestvenka Street 12, 107031 Moscow, Russia
3
University of Zagreb, Faculty of Science, Horvatovac 102a, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
4
Gemeente Alkmaar, Archaeological Centre, Bergerweg 1, 1815 AC Alkmaar, the Netherlands
5
Institute of Geography Russian Academy of Sciences, Staromonetniy Lane 29, 119017 Moscow, Russia
6
Croatian Geological Survey, Milana Sachsa 2, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
1. Introduction
During rescue excavations, archaeologists often have to
operate under the high pressure of time and fnances, and
when the desired scientifc assistance cannot be obtained. As
a result, a narrow range of geoarchaeological methods are
applied or a limited number of samples is analysed. In rescue
excavations carried out in the Netherlands, palynological
analysis and radiocarbon dating are the most common
methods used. Meanwhile, the palette of geoarchaeological
methods for archaeological research is rich and broad,
numbering at least two dozen and considering such types of
anthropogenic indicators as phytoliths, seeds, microcharcoal,
geochemical elements,
etc.
(Golyeva, 2001; 2008; Holliday
and Gartner, 2007; Wilson
et al.
, 2008; Cugny
et al.
, 2010;
Milek and Roberts, 2013; Dietre
et al.
, 2014; Cuenca-García,
2015; Shumilovskikh
et al.,
2016; Rashid
et al.
, 2019). In
this paper, two of the methods – phytolith (microbiomorphic)
and non-pollen palynomorphs analyses, generally accepted
as advanced, efcient and afordable methods, are discussed.
Phytolith analysis is one of the rapidly-developing, up-to-
date scientifc methods in archaeology and palaeoecology
(Rashid
et al.
, 2019). The considerable number of plants
which grew or were used in a certain area, leave evidence of
their prior existence in the form of phytoliths. Phytoliths are
resistant to destruction, and can persist in the soil or on the
surface of various objects for thousands of years (Piperno,
Volume XIV ● Issue 1/2023 ● 105–117
*Corresponding author. E-mail: olga.alex.druzhinina@gmail.com
+Joint frst authorship.
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 28
th
February 2022
Accepted: 18
th
November 2022
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24916/iansa.2023.1.8
Key words:
phytoliths
microbiomorphs
NPP
geoarchaeology
Middl Ages
Early Modern Time
North Holland
ABSTRACT
The aim of the present paper is to discuss the application of phytolith (microbiomorphic) and non-pollen
palynomorph (NPP) analyses to the geoarchaeological study of a Medieval – Early Modern Time period
farmyard in Graft, a settlement located in the polder region of North Holland, the Netherlands. The
authors have assessed the potential of the methods chosen for studying this type of archaeological site
during rescue excavations, when archaeologists often have a limited number of samples or methods for
geoarchaeological analysis. The studies conducted have proved the informative value and efectiveness
of microbiomorphic and NPP analyses in rescue excavations, especially when applied in combination,
thus providing controlling and complementary information for each analysis. The data obtained have
provided an important insight into the archaeological interpretation of the cultural layer within the
farmyard. In addition, more information was gained on the local palaeoenvironmental dynamics and
the phases of economic activity at the farmyard during the 13
th
–17
th
centuries CE.
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IANSA 2023 ● XIV/1 ● 105–117
Olga Druzhinina, Dario Hruševar, Kasper Jurgen van den Berghe, Nancy de Jong-Lambregts, Alexandra Golyeva, Koraljka Bakrač, Božena Mitić: Application of
Phytolith (Microbiomorphic) and Non-Pollen Palynomorph Analyses to the Geoarchaeological Study of the Graft Farmyard, the Netherlands
106
2006). As Madella and Lancelotti (2012) point out, in general,
phytoliths are not transported over long distances because
they are relatively “heavy” particles, and they therefore
characterise a specifc local, rather than regional (as pollen),
environmental situation. The property of phytoliths to remain
in situ
is a valuable source of information which can be
directly related to human activity or the palaeoenvironment.
The development of classical phytolith analysis has led
to an extended version of this method; microbiomorphic
analysis (Golyeva, 2008). It includes a microscopic study
of all the microbiomorphs (organic and silica) retrieved
during the chemical processing in a phytolith sample and
their comprehensive interpretation. Thus, in addition to
the identifcation of phytoliths, microbiomorpic analysis
comprises the quantitative estimation of plant detritus (wood
and grass), the shells of diatoms, the spicules of sponges,
soil fungi,
etc.
Each of the microbiomorphs is an indicator
of certain environmental conditions, thus providing data
to supplement and check the information. As a result,
a wider spectrum of valid multi-faceted information on the
palaeoenvironment can be obtained (Golyeva, 2008; 2016).
Archaeological sediments contain, in addition to pollen
grains, an abundance of “extra” microfossils grouped under
the name of non-pollen palynomorphs (NPPs). They are
highly diverse in nature, comprising the remains of fungi
and algae, the eggs of parasites, the shells of amoebae,
etc.
(Shumilovskikh
et al.,
2016; Shumilovskikh and van Geel,
2020). Each type of NPP occurs under specifc conditions,
such as the presence of decaying wood; the on-site deposition
of manure; wood or manure with parasitic contamination;
after fre and erosional events; and drought or waterlogging
conditions. They occur together with the increased supply
of nutrients or water pollution (Cugny
et al.,
2010;
Chambers
et al.,
2011; Feurdean
et al.,
2013; Shumilovskikh
Figure 1.
The study area. A: Map showing location of Graft in the Netherlands. B: Graft, excavation area. C: Location of the excavation pit (red square).
D: Research location pointed out on a map of 1607.
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Olga Druzhinina, Dario Hruševar, Kasper Jurgen van den Berghe, Nancy de Jong-Lambregts, Alexandra Golyeva, Koraljka Bakrač, Božena Mitić: Application of
Phytolith (Microbiomorphic) and Non-Pollen Palynomorph Analyses to the Geoarchaeological Study of the Graft Farmyard, the Netherlands
107
and van Geel, 2020). Moreover, due to their restricted
dispersal potential, NPPs often provide a local signal. This
makes the group of NPPs a valuable indicator of various
palaeoecological conditions, while the identifcation of NPPs
at archaeological sites provides more vital information about
human activities and the ecological background of the site.
Initially, sampling of any layer or structure for the rescue
excavation of the farmyard in Graft (the Netherlands;
N 52°33`; E 4°49`), preliminary dated to the Late Medieval
– Early Modern time, was not considered in the budget of the
project. However, at the later stages of the research, a small-
scale pilot project was set up, aiming at assessing the potential
of microbiomorphic and NPP methods for studying this type
of archaeological site and obtaining more information about
the area and its users. Geochronological investigation of the
site was carried out as well.
This paper presents the results of microbiomorphic, NPP
and geochronological analyses, which not only provide
data for archaeological investigation but also provoke new
research questions, which can infuence the further outcomes
of an archaeological study.
2. Regional setting and historical background
The research site is located in Graft, of the municipality of
Alkmaar, in the peat polder and reclaimed land in central
North Holland (Figure 1). The low moor that originally
stretched across almost the entire western and northern
Netherlands, the Holland peat, had a thickness of peat down to
more than 20 metres at Graft. From a landscape perspective,
the study area, representing low moorland, is bordered to the
east by the former bay of the North Sea, Zuiderzee, and on
the west by the Heiloo-Alkmaar and Akersloot sandy beach
ridges (Vos
et al.,
2011).
Graft was frst referred to in a list of possessions of the
Egmond Abbey, a document dated between 1091 and 1121
CE (Reh
et al.
, 2005). The founding of the abbey and the
reference to Graft in the list of possessions coincides with
the beginning of the period in which peatland reclamation
began. Due to the Medieval warm period (~ 900–1100 CE),
the conditions for this were very favourable. Drought and
warm temperatures triggered the drying-out of the upper
peat layer, and an enhanced natural drainage of the peatland
(Berendsen
et al.
, 2019). The same factors played a negative
role in coastal areas; there, sand drifts covered formerly
fertile ground (Mantel, 2005; Bazelmans
et al.,
2009).
From about the mid-10
th
century CE, the frst attempts to
reclaim a peat bog from the beach ridge region were made. As
early as the 12
th
century, the peat began to sink and mineralise
as a result of reclamation, triggering the subsidence of land up
to two metres in some locations (Reh
et al.
, 2005; Berendsen
et al.,
2019). Meanwhile, the changing climate patterns during
the starting of the Little Ice Age brought extra far-reaching
consequences for the region. Stronger winds provoked many
disastrous foods in the 12
th
century. Large patches of peat,
together with early reclaimed villages, were swept away. In
response, the construction of dikes, “Binnenmaden”, began in
the 13
th
century. The remaining areas shielded themselves from
the surrounding disaster-stricken area that had transformed
into large expanses of water. The above events triggered
the formation of Schermer Island, sandwiched between the
lakes of Schermeer, Beemster and Starnmeer (Kaptein, 1988;
Mantel, 2005).
With the construction of the dikes, people also moved here,
building dike settlements. Today’s Graft is also formed along
one of these dikes. The newly-constructed dikes brought
new opportunities to the area and its settlers prospered. In the
early 14
th
century, Graft, became a thriving, fully-fedged,
agriculturally-oriented settlement with its own church.
After the aforementioned reclamation, the area became
suitable for arable farming, horticulture and cattle breeding,
though the peat continued to mineralise, increasing soil
wetness. A fnely-meshed network of ditches was created,
leading to larger watercourses, while the land made
a transition to less-intensive land-use and the grazing of
plots. A dual existence became necessary, where the women
kept small farms and the men sailed for a living. Initially,
fshing was done in inland waters; later, in the 17
th
century,
herring fshing and whaling were introduced (Reh
et al.
,
2005).
The village of De Rijp was built as an extension of Graft.
Its residents focused only on fshing and having their own
harbour. The development of De Rijp caused a change
in Graft’s economy; ropes used for shipping became
an important source of income for Graft. Those who did not
earn their living at sea did so on the farm or in one of the
hemp mills, where rope for ships was made. This then made
Graft an important fax- and probably hemp-processing
centre for ship’s rope and fshing nets (Kaptein, 1988).
The great prosperity that this brought made Graft-De Rijp
one of the largest rural communities in North Holland in the
17
th
century (Kaptein, 1988). In addition to fshing, the new
reclamations in the 17
th
–19
th
centuries also gave an economic
impulse for the area’s further development (Berendsen
et al.,
2019).
3. Material and methods
3.1 Archaeological context and stratigraphic
relationships
A small-scale (140 m
2
) rescue excavation of the farmyard
in Graft took place in 2020 (Figure 2). In the centre of
the excavation area, four brick basement blocks were
revealed. The blocks, so-called “vierkant” (square), formed
the base of the wooden frame of a farmhouse, a so-called
“stolp boerderij”, a common regional, square-shaped,
pyramidically-roofed type of farm, which came into use in
the mid-16
th
century. The pottery found near the blocks dates
from the late 16
th
– early 17
th
century.
Between the brick basement area, clusters of poles and
stakes were present. They are assumed to illustrate an older
phase in the use of the farmyard, as indicated by their
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IANSA 2023 ● XIV/1 ● 105–117
Olga Druzhinina, Dario Hruševar, Kasper Jurgen van den Berghe, Nancy de Jong-Lambregts, Alexandra Golyeva, Koraljka Bakrač, Božena Mitić: Application of
Phytolith (Microbiomorphic) and Non-Pollen Palynomorph Analyses to the Geoarchaeological Study of the Graft Farmyard, the Netherlands
108
stratigraphic position and the presence of 13–14
th
century
ceramics in the correlating layers.
The remains of the brick walls built in the 18–19
th
century,
marked the outside of the former farm and the boundary of
the study area.
The soil structure within the brick basement area consisted
of a layered anthropogenic package. A layer of brownish,
highly-humic clay formed its base. It seems to be an elevated
earthen body, in which the soil mass was obtained from the
vicinity, most likely while digging the watercourse adjacent
to the plan area. The watercourse is still there today. On top
of it, a layer, interpreted during feldwork as dung underlaid
by a thin straw or reed interlayer, was present. It was overlain
by a light-coloured sand body covered by a dark brown-
black coloured layer of homogenous humic soil. The top of
the layer formed the present-day surface.
Wooden stakes and the “dung” layer were subjected to
geochronological research, while the sandy layer and the
“dung” layer were sampled for microbiomorphic and NPP
analyses (6 and 4 samples, respectively) to obtain more
information about the farmyard and the activities of its
residents. The research methods and the number of samples
chosen, were based on the funds available for the project.
3.2 Microbiomorphic analysis
About 5 g of a substance was taken from two bulk samples
for analysis. The samples were prepared according to the
standard protocols for phytolith analysis described by
Piperno (1988; 2006) and Golyeva (2008). The samples
were treated with hot 30% H
2
O
2
solution, separated from the
sand and clay by sieve and gravity sedimentation techniques
based on Stokes’s Law and subjected to fotation in a heavy
liquid (cadmium iodide and potassium iodide with a specifc
gravity of about 2.3 g/cm
3
). After a 10-minute centrifugation,
foating siliceous and other biomorphs were placed into
a tube, washed with distilled water several times, immersed in
oils (silica oil or glycerine), and studied under the optical and
scanning electron microscope at magnifcations varying from
200 to 900 times (Nikon Eclipse E200, JEOL 6610LV). The
quantitative content of organic and silica microbiomorphs
was estimated by counting all the morphotypes found
per slide. Phytolith identifcations are based on standard
determination described in (Golyeva, 2001; Madella
et al.,
2005). The morphological types of phytoliths were assigned
to the existing code according to ICPN 2.0. (2019). The
phytoliths were also divided into several biocoenotic
groups, such as forest grass, wet meadows, dry meadows,
domesticated grass (cereals),
etc.
, according to Golyeva’s
ecological interpretation (2007; 2008).
3.3 Non-pollen palynomorphs analysis
In order to extract pollen and plant spores, together with non-
pollen palynomorphs and charcoal from sediments, about
1 g of two soil samples were sieved (250 μm and 7 μm) and
treated with 10% KOH and 20% HCl. Upon the addition of
safranin, the palynological samples were stored in silica oil.
To improve the conservation of non-pollen palynomorphs
(NPPs) during the palynological extraction procedure,
acetolysis was avoided. To enable calculation of pollen,
NPPs and charcoal concentrations, an exotic marker,
i.e.
,
a
Lycopodium
tablet with a known concentration of spores
(Stockmarr, 1971) was added to the samples before treatment.
Identifcation of pollen and plant spores followed standard
keys (Moore
et al.,
1991; Beug, 2015). NPP identifcations
Figure 2.
Rescue excavation in Graft.
A: Excavation pit and location of the
geochronological samples. B: Profle with
sampling location.
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Olga Druzhinina, Dario Hruševar, Kasper Jurgen van den Berghe, Nancy de Jong-Lambregts, Alexandra Golyeva, Koraljka Bakrač, Božena Mitić: Application of
Phytolith (Microbiomorphic) and Non-Pollen Palynomorph Analyses to the Geoarchaeological Study of the Graft Farmyard, the Netherlands
109
were carried out as in van Geel, 1978; van Geel and van der
Hammen, 1978; van Geel
et al.
, 1983; 1989; 2003; Jankovská
and Komárek 2000; Komárek and Jankovská 2001; Carrión
and Navarro, 2002; Fugassa
et al.
, 2006; Montoya
et al.
,
2012; Barthelmes
et al.
, 2012; Prager
et al.,
2012; Kołaczek
et al.
, 2013; Dietre
et al.,
2014; López-Vila
et al.
, 2014;
Shumilovskikh
et al.,
2016; Schlütz and Shumilovskikh,
2017; and Roche
et al.
, 2020. NPP types were assigned to
an existing code according to Miola (2012). A few newly-
described non-pollen palynomorphs were abbreviated ZAG
(
e.g.
ZAG-1, ZAG-2, ZAG-3) as University of Zagreb,
Faculty of Science and Croatian Geological Survey in
Zagreb, being the institutions where isolation and description
of the palynomorphs were made. Palynomorphs and charcoal
particles of the two analysed samples (GR-1 and GR-2) were
counted until the sum of 100
Lycopodium
spores was reached
so as to equalise the concentration between the samples. This
means that more than 200 grains of terrestrial arboreal (AP)
and non-arboreal (NAP) pollen per sample were counted
(in total, 1125 pollen and plant spores for GR-3 sample,
and 314 for GR-4 sample), with simultaneous identifcation
and counting of NPPs. Local pollen and NPP values were
expressed as a percentage in relation to total pollen sum (TS =
AP + NAP), excluding local mire and wetland plants such as
sedge (Cyperaceae) or
Typha latifolia
type,
Sparganium
type,
Potamogeton-Triglochin
, ferns (Polypodiales) and mosses
(
Sphagnum
). The percentages of the excluded taxa, NPPs and
charcoal particles were calculated individually for each taxon
in the ratio to TS + taxon. This is a generally accepted formula
for the POLPAL software used to plot diagrams (Nalepka and
Walanus, 2003).
3.4
Geochronological analysis
Six samples, including a sample from the dung layer and fve
samples of wooden stakes, were analysed by means of an
AMS
14
C survey. The analysis was performed at the Centre
for Physical Sciences and Technology, Mass Spectrometry
Laboratory (Vilnius, Lithuania). Calibrated data (cal CE)
were obtained with OxCal v. 4.4.2. (Bronk Ramsey, 2020).
4. Results
4.1 Microbiomorphs
Well-preserved phytoliths were found in both samples,
though the amount of phytoliths in sample GR-2
is nearly
7 times higher. The samples also contained cuticular casts of
plant cells, diatoms and fragments of sponge needles, plant
detritus and other microbiomorphs indicative of diferent
ecological conditions (Figure 3, Tables 1 and 2).
Figure 3.
Microbiomorphs. Sample GR-1: 1 - diatom; 2 – phytolith of grasses (dry meadows); 3 – sponge spicula; 4 – plant detritus; 5 – phytolith of mosses;
6 – phytolith of reed. Sample GR-2: 7 – phytolith of grasses (forest habitats); 8 – phytolith of grasses (wet meadows); 9 – phytolith of grasses (dry meadows).
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Olga Druzhinina, Dario Hruševar, Kasper Jurgen van den Berghe, Nancy de Jong-Lambregts, Alexandra Golyeva, Koraljka Bakrač, Božena Mitić: Application of
Phytolith (Microbiomorphic) and Non-Pollen Palynomorph Analyses to the Geoarchaeological Study of the Graft Farmyard, the Netherlands
110
Sample GR-1.
The sample contains a large amount of
plant detritus, amorphous organic material and the remains
of grass roots. Pollen grains and the cuticular casts of plant
cells are also present. Among the silica microbiomorphs,
variably-preserved diatoms, clearly predominate (Table 1).
In addition to diatoms, fragments of sponge needles with no
signs of corrosion are well preserved.
Phytoliths are relatively scarce. The forms identifed
represent meadow grasses (68%), reed (13%), the needles of
coniferous trees (13%) and mosses (6%) (Table 2).
Sample GR-2.
The sample is enriched in herbaceous
detritus, amorphous organic material and pollen grains.
Sponge spicules and diatom shells are rare, while phytoliths
clearly dominate among silica microbiomorphs (Table 1).
Analysis has also revealed phytoliths that did not separate
from the organic tissue (Figure 3/9).
The phytolithic complex is dominated by grasses, forms
typical of wet and dry meadows (21% and 14%). Analysis
shows the elevated representation of ferns (11%) and mosses
(16%) in the sample (Table 2).
4.2 Non-pollen palynomorphs
The concentrations of pollen and spores, non-pollen
palynomorphs, charcoal particles and fungi/plant/animal
remains vary considerably from sample to sample (Figures 4
and 5; Table 3).
Sample GR-3
displays a high total pollen concentration
and high algal (mainly those of the genus
Pediastrum
)
and fungal concentrations. Charcoal particles, dominated
by microcharcoal, are abundant. In contrast, sample GR-4
exhibits much lower palynomorph values and an almost
complete absence of charcoal particles – the pollen
Table 1.
The main categories of organic and silica microbiomorphs (in units).
SampleDetritusAmorphous organic
matter
Sponge spiculesDiatomsPhytolithsOther microbiomorphs,
present in the sample
GR-1>100>100816 12Cuticular casts, roots, pollen grains
GR-2>100>10023107Pollen grains
Table 2.
Results of phytolith analysis. The phytolith assemblages (in %).
Composition of the phytolith complexSampleICPN 2.0. code
GR-1GR-2
Dicotyledonous and several monocotyledonous herbs6229
ELO_ENT
Coniferous 137
BLO_VEL
Forest grasses–1
ACU_BUL_1
Meadow grasses621
ACU_BUL_2; BIL; ELO_SIN; POL
Dry meadow grasses–14
RON_CON; RON_TRZ
Reed131
BUL_FLA
Ferns and mosses–11
ELO_SIN
Mosses616
SPH_PSI
Figure 4.
Percentage values of diferent
palynomorph groups and charcoal particles
in the samples of Graft.
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Olga Druzhinina, Dario Hruševar, Kasper Jurgen van den Berghe, Nancy de Jong-Lambregts, Alexandra Golyeva, Koraljka Bakrač, Božena Mitić: Application of
Phytolith (Microbiomorphic) and Non-Pollen Palynomorph Analyses to the Geoarchaeological Study of the Graft Farmyard, the Netherlands
111
concentration is almost four times lower, as compared to
that of sample GR-3. It is accompanied by fungi and plant
remains (mainly xylem vessels).
Sample GR-3.
Non-pollen palynomorphs, such as algae,
prevail.
Pediastrum
(especially the taxon
Pediastrum
boryanum
) is much more abundant, as compared to
Spirogyra
,
Botryococcus
or Volvocaceae (Figure 6).
Within the fungi group,
Podospora
spores are most
abundant, accounting for 4.5%.
Podospora
is followed by
Glomus
(3.4%) and the newly-found ZAG-3 (2.7%) fungus.
Although
Glomus
seems to indicate erosion phenomena
(van Geel
et al.
, 1989) related to anthropogenic activity and
drought, this fungus is involved in arbuscular mycorrhiza
and can colonise the roots of plants overgrowing the
slab surface.
Meliola ellisii
(HdV-14) of the family
Meliolaceae is an obligate and rather oligophagous
parasite occurring on green plants. This fungus is
a common parasite on
Calluna vulgaris
(van Geel
et al.,
1981) and is often found on relatively dry
Calluna
bog
(van Geel
et al.,
1981).
Other groups (Nematoda, Arthropoda, animal remains,
as well as plant and fungal fragments) are less common.
The presence of an egg of
Capillaria
cf.
putorii
, a common
parasite of the canine (Canidae) and marten (Mustelidae)
families (Gomper
et al.,
2003), is noteworthy.
Furthermore, analysis has revealed indicators of wet
conditions and an aquatic environment, such as Copepoda
(HdV-28) and Cladocera carapaces (Chydoridae) (van Geel,
1978; van Geel and Middeldorp, 1988).
Sample GR-4.
Fungal spores and fungal remains (mostly
tissue from, probably, fruit bodies) prevailed. Two unknown
fungal forms, probably spores: ZAG-2 (~15%) and ZAG-
1 (~11%), are most abundant; these are followed by plant
vascular tissue – xylem vessels (~9%) and fungal tissue
(~7%). Algae are almost completely missing in the sample,
only one
Pediastrum
coenobia was found.
4.2.1 Short description of newly-found non-pollen
palynomorphs
ZAG-1 – probably chytrid zoosporangia, operculated,
appended, thick-walled (ca 0.3 μm). Variable in shape
and size, from almost circular to, most often, irregularly
piriform or reniform. Length 25–30 μm, width 10–15 μm,
with opercula 17–25 × 7–12 μm in diameter (occupies
approximately 4/5 of the sporangia surface). Colour yellow.
ZAG-2 – fungal ascospores, elipsoid to subspherical,
37–43.3 μm long and 25–30 μm wide. Single cells small,
inaperturate, subspherical or lightly polygonal, 4–10 μm in
diameter, thick-walled. Colour is dark-brown.
ZAG-3 – fungal ascospores, cylindric elongated with
rounded ends, 57–63 μm long, 14–17 μm wide. Single cells
rarely round, often angular, inaperturate, 4–7 μm in diameter,
with muri ca 2.3 μm wide. Cells are mostly arranged in two
rows. Colour is dark-brown.
Figure 5.
Percentage values of diferent vegetation types (FOREST:
Pinus
,
Fagus
,
Carpinus
,
Acer
,
Tilia
,
Quercus
,
Ulmus
,
Alnus
,
Betula
; COPPICE:
Corylus
;
OPEN LAND:
Senecio
t., Caryophyllaceae, Plumbaginaceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae); WETLAND/MIRE: Ericaceae undif.,
Calluna vulgaris
, Cyperaceae,
Typha latifolia
t.,
Sparganium
t.,
Potamogeton/Triglochin
, Polypodiales,
Sphagnum
,
Hydrozetes
- Acari Oribatida (HdV-36),
Sphagnum
- leaf fragments,
Moss – leaf, Moss-sporangium, Fern-sporangium fragments; ANTHROPOGENIC INDICATORS:
Humulus/Cannabis
,
Persicaria maculosa
t.,
Artemisia
,
Chenopodiaceae,
Polygonum aviculare
t.,
Plantago lanceolata
t., Cerealia (cereals),
Podospora
(HdV-368),
Capillaria
cf.
putorii
egg; INDICATORS OF
WETNESS:
Spirogyra
,
Pediastrum
,
Botryococcus
, Spermatophore of Copepoda (HdV-28), Chydoridae (copepods),
Entophlyctis lobata
(HdV-13), FIRE
INDICATORS: macrocharcoal and microcharcoal particles; INDIFFERENT/UNKNOWN:
Meliola ellisii
(HdV-14),
Entorrhiza
(HdV-527),
Glomus
(HdV-
207), ZAG-1, ZAG-2, ZAG-3; fungal tissue A (probably fruit body), fungal tissue B (probably fruit body), fungal tissue C (probably fruit body), animal
remains (HdV-101), animal remains (probably eggs), plants-stomata, plants-vascular tissue (xylem elements), plants-epidermis (A), plants-epidermis (B),
plants-epidermis (C).
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Table 3.
Basic categories and the total amount of palynomorphs (in units).
BASIC CATEGORIES OF MICROFOSSILS
Sample
ARBOREAL POLLEN
NON-ARBOREAL
POLLEN
LOCAL PLANTS
FUNGI
FUNGAL REMAINS
ALGAE
NEMATODA
ARTHROPODA
ANIMAL REMAINS
PLANT FRAGMENTS
CHARCOAL
GR-318371871384461426316
GR-442248667161002362
ARBOREAL POLLEN
Sample
Pinus
Fagus
Carpinus
Acer
Tilia
Quercus
Ulmus
Alnus
Betula
Corylus
GR-3261151618743561
GR-41100020000
NON-ARBOREAL POLLEN
Sample
Senecio
Caryophyllaceae
Plumbaginaceae
Fabaceae
Humulus/Cannabis
Persicaria maculosa
t.
Artemisia
Cichoriaceae
Chenopodiaceae
Polygonum aviculare
t.
Plantago lanceolata
t.
Poaceae
Cerealia
GR-3822031172611118
GR-45104000000119320
LOCAL PLANTS
Sample
Ericaceae
undif.
Calluna
vulgaris
Cyperaceae
Typha latifolia
t.
Sparganium
t.
Potamogeton
/
Triglochin
Polypodiales
Sphagnum
GR-363161481210167419
GR-4008000213
FUNGI
Sample
Entophlyctis lobata
(HdV-13)
Meliola ellisii
(HdV-14)
Podospora
(HdV-
368)
Enthorhiza
(HdV-
527)
Glomus
(HdV-207)
ZAG-1
ZAG-2
ZAG-3
GR-3511249007
GR-40000127390
4.3 Geochronology
All the samples contained a sufcient amount of carbon for
accurate measurement and produced a sufcient ion beam
during AMS
14
C measurement. The δ13C values are in the
normal range for organic samples, indicating good reliability
of the results.
AMS
14
C measurements gave the results in Table 4.
Despite the high measuring accuracy of carbon dating,
a wide probability range of calibrated age, from the mid-17
th
to the 20
th
century, was obtained for 4 wood samples (posts
with fnd nos. 38, 41, 42 and 44). This is due to solar activity
fuctuations during the period discussed and, consequently,
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FUNGAL REMAINSALGAE
Sample
Fungal tissue (fruit
body) (A)
Fungal tissue (fruit
body) (B)
Fungal tissue
(fruit body) (C)
Spirogyra
Pediastrum
Botryococcus
GR-34005365
GR-40511010
NEMATODAARTHROPODAANIMAL REMAINS
Sample
Capillaria putorii
egg
Hydrozetes - Acari
Oribatida (HdV-36)
Spermatophore of
Copepoda (HdV-28)
Chydoridae
Animal remains
(HdV-101)
Animal remains
(probably eggs)
GR-3111220
GR-4000002
PLANT FRAGMENTS
Sample
Sphagnum - leaf
fragments
Moss - leaf
Moss-sporangium
Fern-sporangium
fragments
Plants-stomata
Plants- vascular
tissue
Plants-epidermis (A)
Plants-epidermis (B)
Plants-epidermis (C)
GR-3201200010
GR-401001221011
Sample
MACROCHARCOALMICROCHARCOAL
GR-388228
GR-402
Table 4.
Results of the AMS
14
C measurements.
Nr.Laboratory codeMaterial
14
C age Probability 68.3% Probability 95.4%
13
FTMC-BV59-1
bulk sample728±29
1268–1292 cal CE1229–1379 cal CE
18
FTMC-BV59-2
wood406±27
1445–1490 cal CE1437–1621 cal CE
38
FTMC-HJ79-1
wood133±27
1684–1930 cal CE1675–1942 cal CE
41
FTMC-HJ79-2
wood178±26
1668–1928 cal CE1659–1915 cal CE
42
FTMC-HJ79-3
wood104±26
1695–1916 cal CE1686–1928 cal CE
44
FTMC-HJ79-4
wood207±27
1655–1800 cal CE1646–1925 cal CE
Table 3.
Basic categories and the total amount of palynomorphs (in units). (
Continuation
)
a decrease in the precision of radioactive signal calibration.
It is clear, however, that the wood studied from the above
four samples is not older than the mid-17
th
century.
5. Discussion
The results obtained provide valuable additional information
on the oldest stages of anthropogenic activity in the region
and the palaeoenvironmental background.
First of all, an essential conclusion regarding the function
of the layers sampled can be drawn. Both microbiomorphs
and NPP analyses indicate that the “dung layer” is a layer
of organic matter consisting mainly of grasses from wet
and dry meadows, as indicated by the phytolith analysis.
The presence of phytoliths that have not separated from
organic tissue could indicate “early” (summer) hay
harvesting, when lack of the natural decomposition of
grasses (
i.e.
, in autumn) would occur (Golyeva, 2008). In
this case, the results of the NPP analysis do not support
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the assumption that the layer is manure, because it contains
no reliable coprophilous indicators, such as
Sporormiella
-
type,
Sordaria
-type or
Podospora
-type (Baker
et.al.,
2016).
It is more likely that this layer consists of decomposed hay.
Furthermore, a relatively high amount of moss, identifed
by phytolith analysis, could indicate that hay was used as
part of the structure together with a moss interlayer (as well
as a straw/reed interlayer found at the base of the organic
mass).
In this case, that hay was used as cattle fodder, conclusions
regarding the diet of the animals kept on the farm could be
drawn. Phytolith analysis shows that hay was harvested from
various wet and dry pastures. The presence of dry pastures is
an important factor showing that, during the period discussed,
parcels of land with dryer soil conditions still existed in the
territory. Later, they were substantially infuenced by the
rising water level.
With respect to the function of the sandy layer, microbiomorph
analysis has not revealed any clear evidence of human activities
or foodstufs, but the NPP analytical data suggest that the sand
layer was part of the foor of a stable at some later stage of
the farmyard. This assumption is based on the relatively high
percentage of
Podospora
(HdV-368), which indicates the
presence of manure on a very local scale (<10 m) and is a well-
known indicator of grazing and related activities (Graf and
Chmura, 2006; Cugny
et al.,
2010; Baker
et al.
, 2016).
The radiocarbon data, together with the available fnds
of pottery and known historical sources, has led us to some
conclusions regarding the habitation phases at the locality
studied.
Figure 6.
Some selected non-pollen palynomorphs found in the samples GR-11 and GR-10. ALGAE:
Botryococcus
(1),
Spirogyra
(2),
Pediastrum
(3),
Volvocaceae (HdV-128) (4); FUNGI:
Entorrhiza
(HdV-527) (5),
Entophlyctis lobata
(HdV-13) (6), Glomeromycota -
Glomus
(7),
Meliola ellisii
(HdV-14)
(8),
Podospora
(HdV-386) (9), ZAG-1 (10), ZAG-2 (11), ZAG-3 - very similar to EMA-85 (12); ANIMAL REMAINS:
Capillaria
cf.
putorii
(13),
Chydoridae - Cladocera carapaces (14), Spermatophore of Copepoda (15), Hydrozetes (Acari: Oribatida) (16); PLANT FRAGMENTS:
Sphagnum
leaf (17),
stomata (18), vascular tissue (xylem element) (19), epidermis (20).
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Phytolith (Microbiomorphic) and Non-Pollen Palynomorph Analyses to the Geoarchaeological Study of the Graft Farmyard, the Netherlands
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The earliest phase of activity began when people came
to the region for soil reclamation in the 13
th
–14
th
century.
This date is based on the pottery fragments found and the
correlated AMS
14
C date (1229–1379 cal CE). The hay
layer revealed could have been part of a haystack or a so-
called “hallenhuis” – a type of a long-standing, one-storey
farmhouse with a living area, a cowshed, and grain and
hay storage, under one roof. This type of house was well-
known in most of the Netherlands and Northern Germany in
Medieval times (Waterbolk, 2009).
Probably, in the 16
th
– early 17
th
century, a restructuring
of the farmyard took place. This assumption is supported by
the dating of a wooden stake, which was part of the internal
structure (1437–1621 cal CE). Historical records suggest
that in 1607–1612 the reclamation of the Beemster, one of
the biggest lakes in the study area, took place, triggering
a new phase of economic activities in the region (Reh
et al.,
2005). According to the archaeological data, a new type
of house, so called “stolp boerderij”, a regional common,
square-shaped, pyramidicaly-roofed type of farm, which
came into use in the mid-16
th
century, was built on the
location (Waterbolk, 2009). It seems that while renewing
the farmyard, a sandy layer was added to level the area for
the new stage of living.
The third stage of activity at the farmyard is marked by
the next renewal of the house in the 18–19
th
century, as
indicated by the remains of brick walls built at this stage
and found during excavation. The house is referred to in the
cadastral archives as early as 1832, maintaining its “stolp
boerderij” form up until 2019, when fnal reconstruction,
followed by archaeological excavations, began (Kalverdijk,
2020).
The results of the microbiomorphic and NPP analyses
illustrate the local palaeoenvironmental dynamics in the
Medieval and Early Modern period. Thus, a variety of
phytolith assemblages and the presence of pollen from
cultivated cereals support the existence of wet meadow
and dry grassland landscapes, as well as agricultural
plots in the study area during the 13
th
–14
th
century. The
presence of anthropogenic indicators, such as
Cerealia,
Artemisia, Plantago lanceolata t., Polygonum aviculare,
etc.
, as well as a high percentage of micro- and macro-
charcoal particles revealed in the sand layer, indicate that
in the 16
th
–17
th
century the area was considerably afected
by human activities.
Humulus-Cannabis
type, found in the
pollen spectrum (3%), seems to be related to rope making
from
Cannabis
as used in sailing and known from historical
sources (Kaptein, 1988), although this pollen type could
just refect
the occurrence of
Humulus
as part of its natural
dispersal
.
It is important to point out that the study area is
situated in a peatland, where no sand deposits are available
on the surface. Nothing is known so far about the logistics
or trade connections of Graft as regards deliveries of sand,
but such connections must have existed, as indicated by
the intensive building and economic activity during the
16
th
–17
th
century. The probable nearest source of sand
used at the farmyard was located to the west of Graft,
most likely on the border between the inland edge of the
dune area and the mire or lake, which at that time still
existed. This conclusion is in good agreement with the
data provided by the NPP and microbiomorphic analyses
of the sand layer. This is evident both from NPP moisture
indicators (
Spirogyra, Pediastrum, Botryococcus
,
etc.
)
and from the predominance of diatoms and sponges among
the microbiomorphs found in this layer. Analysis has also
revealed the presence of well-preserved pollen, plant roots
and detritus in the sample, which is also characteristic
of surface sediment layers along the water line. The
composition of the phytolith complex refects the natural
vegetation at a site of sand extraction: it originates from
a coastal forest edge with meadow vegetation and reeds.
The NPP data suggest that plant composition is indicative
of alder, oak and pine-dominated forest (with, probably,
the overgrowing of wetter areas), while the presence of
Chenopodiaceae and Plumbaginaceae is an argument in
favour of naturally-saline marshes that may have been
close to the study area.
6. Conclusions
The study has shown that microbiomorphic and NPP analyses
provide a deeper insight into archaeological fndings. First of
all, an essential conclusion regarding the function of the two
sampled layers was drawn. NPP analysis has not supported
the manure origin of the layer, as frst interpreted as such
solely by visual examination. Meanwhile, microbiomorphic
analysis showed that the layer seems to be hay, as indicated
by the predominance of phytoliths of meadow grasses as
well as the presence of phytoliths that had not separated
from the organic tissue in a natural seasonal manner. The
hay could have been used either as fodder for cattle or as part
of a structure.
Furthermore, microbiomorphic and NPP analyses were
able to clarify the origin and function of the sand layer, and
provided information on the location of sand extraction and
its further function within the farmyard. Sand could have
been brought from the region to the west of Graft in the farm
renewal phase and had been used to level the surface. Part
of the layer could have been used as a foor in the stable,
as indicated by a relatively high percentage of coprophilous
Podospora
(HdV-368).
The research also provided important information on the
local palaeoenvironmental dynamics and phases of economic
activity at the farmyard in the Medieval and Early Modern
periods.
To conclude, the study has demonstrated the informative
value and efectiveness of microbiomorphic and NPP
analysis in rescue excavations, especially when performed
in combination, thus obtaining information which can be
complementary and, to some degree, corroboratory to the
results of each analysis.
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Phytolith (Microbiomorphic) and Non-Pollen Palynomorph Analyses to the Geoarchaeological Study of the Graft Farmyard, the Netherlands
116
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers
and the editors for their valuable suggestions. The analytical
part of the research was partly fnanced by state assignment
No. 0148-2019-0006. The authors thank Ž. Ežerinskis,
J. Šapolaitė and L. Butkus (Centre for Physical Sciences
and Technology, Vilnius, Lithuania) for performing the
geochronological analysis.
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