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XII/2/2021
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
Generalised Typesets in Experimental Ceramics: Widening Applicability
and Maximizing Cross-cultural Assessments
Caroline Jefra
1*
1
University of Amsterdam, BG 1, Turfdraagsterpad 9, 1012XT Amsterdam, The Netherlands
1. Introduction
One of the principles which underpins experimental
archaeology is the validity of analogy; ensuring that strong
analogies are established between experimental variables
selected and the archaeological record represented forms the
framework against which results are measured. The process
of crafting a strong analogy within an experiment design also
has the efect of placing an experiment within the continuum
ranging between actualistic and scientistic (Outram, 2008).
On the one end of this continuum, actualism might aim
to explore variables directly impacting the experiment
while incorporating many conditions with indirect or
unknown impact as well (such as might be the case in
ceramic experiments using locally collected clays while
using context-appropriate tools and working in a context-
appropriate environment). At the other extreme, scientistic
experiments may focus on testing a narrowly restricted set
of variables while holding most variables in control (such as
ceramic experiments which use commercially available clay
to create briquettes with difering proportions of temper in
a controlled lab environment).
Fashioning in potting, particularly wheel fashioning, has
been investigated with the aid of experimental archaeology
to create comparative material to clarify details of
archaeological material in a number of studies (Berg, 2009;
Courty and Roux, 1995; Gandon
et al.
, 2011; Jefra, 2013;
2015; Roux and Courty, 1998; Thér, 2015; Thér and Toms,
2016). To date, however, these studies have little addressed
their location on the actualistic to scientistic continuum. This
Volume XII ● Issue 2/2021 ● Pages 173–179
*Corresponding author. E-mail: caroline.jefra@gmail.com
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 8
th
February 2021
Accepted: 19
th
September 2021
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24916/iansa.2021.2.5
Key words:
experimental archaeology
experimental methods
ceramic typeset
analogy
potter’s wheel
ABSTRACT
Investigations tackling the production techniques used by ancient potters often rely upon experimental
archaeology to clarify the relationship between surface morphology, surface topography, and the
techniques, methods, and gestures used in the potting process. These experimental archaeology
programmes focus on creating collections of experimental vessels to compare against archaeologically-
recovered vessels, thus allowing production techniques to be identifed. Often times, however, the
typesets generated are designed to address a specifc intersection of qualities; replica vessels adhere to
a tight range of shapes, dimensions, paste recipes, and/or forming techniques. As such, the applicability
of those typesets remains narrow and context-specifc. How, then, can researchers tackle assemblages
with diverse vessel types? Or contexts composed of competing potting traditions? Or contexts with
signifcant proportions of vessels from many diferent origins?
This paper presents a new approach to the way that experimental typesets are designed, developed
specifcally to address the problem of reliably identifying forming techniques across multiple
assemblages. By focusing on accommodating common geometric possibilities of vessel shapes,
a generalised typeset can allow individuals to make use of well-documented experimental data.
The typeset for the Tracing the Potter’s Wheel project was designed for broad applicability, and
has been made freely accessible as a reference collection. Through the creation of and comparison
against a generalised typeset, heterogeneous assemblages can be better understood and resources
can be directed toward answering specifc questions. This paper presents the theoretical foundations
supporting the concept of a generalised typeset, as well as the practice of using a generalised typeset
for analysis.
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omission does have interesting implications, however, for
a far greater number of studies have focused on identifying
wheel fashioning methods and techniques without a basis
in tailored experimental archaeology (
e.g.
Choleva, 2013;
Choleva, Jung and Kardamaki, 2020; Gorogianni, Abell and
Hilditch, 2016; Knappett, 1999; 2005). These studies (whose
high quality is not being debated), lacking new experimental
archaeology programmes, rely on the experience of the
authors for successful identifcation of relevant evidence
of fashioning methods and techniques. This experience
may come from the comparison against existing teaching
collections (such as Laboratoire Préhistoire & Technologie’s
collections de la technothèque, an online reference collection
of over 700 ceramic objects at https://teknotek.pretech.cnrs.
fr/s/fr/page/techniques-ceramiques, or Tracing the Potter’s
Wheel Project’s own Information Hub of experimental and
archaeological reference material at https://tracingthewheel.
eu/database/), or consultation with volumes such as Valentine
Roux’s excellent recent publication “Ceramics and Society:
A Technological Approach” (2019). The foundation of the
experiences of non-experimentally derived works, however,
is often based on the products of existing experiments.
For this reason, it is important that scholars employing
experimental approaches explicitly outline the applicability
of their products for future analogies, thereby enabling
scholars lacking training in application of experimental
archaeology to better ascertain applicability of analogies.
In considering the process of comparative typeset creation,
experiments which address fashioning can be designed in
a way which relates to either end of the actualism-scientism
spectrum (Figure 1). Actualistic typesets might reproduce
specifc paste preparation, vessel shapes, tools used,
and fring processes. Each choice within this actualistic
experiment serves to strengthen the analogy’s applicability
to the specifc material culture it represents. On the other
hand, those choices also serve to weaken the analogy’s
applicability to other material culture
not
represented in
those choices. Scientistic typesets, meanwhile, might include
non-specifc raw materials such as commercially-available
fne clay, a simple vessel shape such as a cylinder, as well
as standardised tools and fring processes. This approach
efectively disallows the single, strong analogy reached in
the case of actualistic typesets, but vessels within the typeset
maintain moderate analogy strength in comparisons across
a broad swathe of vessel types.
Given the benefts and the drawbacks of these two extreme
examples of experimental typeset, it might be tempting to
dismiss scientistic examples as irrelevant. This overlooks
a few realities which deserve acknowledgement. Firstly, not
all assemblages are homogenous; archaeological sites may
have hosted lively exchange of material culture and have
diverse types and shapes of ceramics, each formed of distinct
paste recipes and fred in diferent ways. If an experimental
programme is to accommodate this heterogeneity while
also addressing a range of variables (such as diferent
fashioning methods or techniques), then taking an actualistic
approach would necessitate a rather large experimental
programme. Managing the scale of an experimental
programme is at the heart of the second reality which must
be acknowledged. Controlling or exploring many variables
within an experiment (or series of experiments) requires
signifcant time and labour costs, which are not accessible
to many researchers. Overall, scientistic experiments
represent opportunities to accommodate the diversity which
characterises some archaeological assemblages as well as
opportunities to economise on time and labour investment
of research.
Experimental archaeology needs not
always
be performed
at either end of this continuum between actualism and
scientism, however, and each approach can be deployed
Figure 1.
The actualism-scientism spectrum.
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meaningfully in order to maintain a balance maximising
research resources and reaching strong interpretations
of material culture. Furthermore, there are intermediate
strategies which can be followed. The author has undertaken
one such intermediate strategy in two separate experiments,
by developing a generalised typeset.
2. Background
Overall, the pattern in the application of experimental
archaeology is tied to the actualism-scientism continuum
described above. Experiments might address general
principles of material, which may or may not be directly
linked to a particular assemblage or item. These scientistic
experiments allow for mechanical behaviours and material
properties in material culture production to be better
understood. In some cases, these experiments also allow
for material culture production techniques to be interpreted.
Conversely, actualistic experiments strongly adhere to
conditions which are observed in specifc archaeological
contexts to address questions which relate directly to those
contexts. These actualistic experiments are very well-suited
to shedding light on material culture production in those
archaeological contexts, but do not necessarily give insights
into other behaviours of material culture production.
A productive research cycle to follow in archaeological
experiments starts with scientistic and progresses
toward actualistic work. In this fashion, the conceptual
underpinnings of material properties and behaviours can be
understood before using actualistic experiments to explore
the relationship between material behaviours and human
behaviours as expressed in material culture. Working from
broad to specifc questions allows for conservation of
resources as well, by virtue of narrowing potential questions
to be addressed in actualistic experiments.
A generalised typeset occupies a space between actualistic
and scientistic approaches to archaeological experiments,
resulting in vessels which can be readily related to
a heterogeneous range of archaeological vessels while still
maintaining the potential for strong analogies between
typeset and archaeological material. A key concept of this
work is that generalised typesets are inherently considered
to be one phase within an overall research strategy which
is designed to efciently use resources for maximum
applicability. This strategy is based on narrowing the range
of unanswered questions by working from broad to specifc.
Broad questions relate well to scientistic applications
of experimental archaeology, and may be thought of as
conceptual,
i.e.
“Can one distinguish between wheel-coiling
and wheel-throwing?” Specifc questions relate best to
actualistic applications of experimental archaeology,
and are characterised by their attention to fne details,
i.e.
“Were stemmed cups found at Telos wheel-coiled or wheel-
fashioned?” But if one wishes to ask intermediate questions,
then one must rely on selective specifcity,
i.e.
“What were
Figure 2.
Cretan and Cypriot sites included in pilot study and chronological periods during which time potters were frst using the potter’s wheel to fashion
their pots.
0 200 km
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the fashioning techniques and methods for the assemblage
recovered from Telos?”
A major objection to the use of a generalised typeset
is that it lacks the specifcity of actualistic experimental
programmes. This is true; by design a generalised typeset
cannot produce the strong analogies which come through
exploring many variables to parallel the choices of ancient
potters. The strength of a generalised typeset, however, is its
suitability for answering most questions about most vessels
in an assemblage, which allows for a follow up stage of
actualistic experiments to be conducted as needed. There
is the added beneft that the subjects of these actualistic
experiments are well-justifed by virtue of their resistance
to identifcation according to the contents of a generalised
typeset.
A generalised typeset, then, occupies an important place
between the broad questions of scientistic experiments
and the specifcity of actualistic experiments. Furthermore,
it is the author’s position that those producing typesets,
particularly generalised typesets, have a responsibility to
make them freely accessible. This maximises their beneft to
the feld by allowing others to progress more readily to either
analysing their own assemblages or conducting actualistic
experiments of their own.
3. Method
Although the concept of using a generalised typeset can
be applied to address diferent experimental variables,
the author’s focus has been on fashioning methods and
techniques. The author’s experimental work has largely
focused on the time period when potters in Crete and
Cyprus were frst using the potter’s wheel to fashion their
pots (Figure 2). As such, the primary concern was to create
a typeset which could serve as an adequate analogy for East
Mediterranean vessels from the Middle to Late Bronze Age,
while also providing comparative material formed using
wheel-coiling methods as well as wheel-throwing. The
primary variables to be considered and accommodated in
establishing the typeset as adequate comparative material
were therefore vessel shape and clay texture. These two
variable sets had difering implications for the resulting
typesets.
3.1 Accommodating vessel shape
One of the most readily apparent indices of ceramic
heterogeneity is in vessel form. The geometric morphology
of vessels is culturally infuenced, changing through time and
impacted by the ability of potters to replicate specifc shapes
as needed. Vessel form also should infuence the presence
and characteristics of forming traces visible on surfaces,
diferentially revealing those traces during clay deformation
operations of vessel shaping. Taking a global view, however,
one can argue that although the particulars of vessel form
are infnitely customisable, forms are the product of a fnite
lexicon of geometric shapes. By conceiving of a vessel as
a scalable object which is constituted of three zones (lower,
middle, upper), those zones can be investigated and the
fndings from an experimental typeset can be compared
against the archaeological material by following a modular
approach. Taking this approach, typeset vessels as individuals
may poorly refect the forms represented in an archaeological
assemblage, but features of each experimental form can
yet be a strong analogy for understanding the fashioning
practices represented across a heterogeneous assemblage.
The frst pilot of this morphological approach to
a generalised typeset was undertaken in experimental work
spanning 2007–2011 by the author (Jefra, 2011). In that
work, Cretan and Cypriot excavation reports relating to the
earliest periods of wheel use for each context were reviewed.
Shapes represented in the typeset were selected based on
their morphological dissimilarity from one another as well as
each shape’s potential for comparison against multiple forms
common to the archaeological material.
The most recent application of the morphological approach
to creating a generalised typeset was undertaken in the
experimental work for the Tracing the Potter’s Wheel project
(2017–2021) by the author. Unlike the pilot experimental
work detailed above, the archaeological sites against which
the typeset would be compared were not determined prior
to commencing the experimental work, though the project’s
focus area included Greece, particularly the sites within the
Aegean Sea. It was therefore not possible to narrow the range
of relevant forms by reviewing excavation reports as was
the case in the pilot study. Instead, the process of modular
analysis was selected as a strategy to allow experimental
work to proceed. To create the conditions for modular
analysis of vessels, a broad survey of characteristic as well
as rare Bronze Age Aegean ceramic forms was undertaken.
The lower zone of a vessel most signifcantly includes
the infection point where vessel wall meets base, and for
the purposes of this approach incorporates the lowest one-
ffth to one-third of the vessel wall height. This wall-to-base
transition can be characterised by the angle at which wall
meets base in the vessel interior, with angles ranging from
acute to obtuse. The middle zone of the vessel presents
several opportunities for variation, and for the purposes of
this approach ranges from the middle one-third to three-ffths
of the overall wall height. The morphology of the wall in
this middle zone can be characterised based on the presence
and nature of the curvature along the vertical axis. Like the
middle zone, the upper zone of the vessel can also include
diferent types of curvature along the vertical axis. The
region considered the upper of the vessel, for the purposes
of this application, included the uppermost one-ffth to one-
third of the overall vessel height.
3.2 Accommodating diferent clays
As the research conducted when the generalised typeset was
designed centred on East Mediterranean ceramics from the
Middle to Late Bronze Age, it was useful to understand the
extent of potential heterogeneity of clay recipes in advance.
The geology of the East Mediterranean is notoriously
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diverse, and the clays available to and used by potters were
correspondingly diverse, from clay body to inclusions to
preparation procedures. One aspect the diferent types of
ceramics have in common, however, is the presence of both
‘fne’ and ‘coarse’ objects in the archaeological assemblages.
Fine ceramics produced at a site in east Crete might have
a diferent texture and colour from those produced at a site in
southwest Cyprus, but those objects would hold in common
that the clay bodies from which they were formed was well
levigated and lacked non-plastic inclusions. Similarly, the
raw materials which contributed to the inclusions in coarse
ceramics might difer from one production practice to another,
but the fact that non-plastic inclusions were well represented
in the ceramics was a common feature of those objects. As
such, creating a generalised typeset required acknowledging
that untempered and tempered clay could produce distinct or
difering surface traces indicative of fashioning methods or
techniques, and as a result those two clay types should each
be represented in the typeset.
The pilot experimental study made use exclusively of fne,
untempered clay to form the typeset, while the later study
included fne, untempered, as well as fne clay, tempered,
with 2.0 mm grog. While the untempered clay could be
taken as representative of similarly untempered ceramics,
the grog tempered clay allowed for the role of non-plastic
inclusions to be better illustrated within the typeset. This in
turn increases the strength of the analogies drawn between
experimental and archaeological materials.
3.3 Other variables
Although vessel morphology and clay recipe were the two
attributes which were most well-considered in attempting to
refne the strength of analogy regardless of archaeological
context, several other variables are worthy of mention.
First of these is the choice of tools. While a generalised
typeset approach could accommodate exploration of this
variable through use of one or more wheel device types, for
example, in the creation of the typesets described herein,
an anticlockwise rotating electric wheel was used. This is
also the case for smaller hand-held tools such as ribs for
scraping and fnishing, cloths or sponges for smoothing and
adding or removing water from the clay surface, as well as
strings or wires used to cut clay (notably from the wheel
head, leaving characteristic traces).
Beyond the question of tools as variables, some raw
material properties can be explored in a generalised typeset
to the beneft of a number of contexts. One such property is
the relative humidity and workability of the clay being used.
Even viewing potters at work in small and medium-scale
modern workshops reveals that clay consistency for wheel-
fashioning techniques and methods can vary considerably
(see, for example, the diversity on show in the video playlist
curated to accompany the conference Archaeological
Approaches to the Study of the Potter’s Wheel: https://
youtube.com/playlist?list=PLqWUT1pOFU1NOY_
OTD2xFVmPyUG8tvIZF). While this variation is clear, the
relationship between clay consistency and traces observable
on the fnished vessels is less so. Addressing this variation
within a generalised typeset could include testing one clay
recipe under difering levels of hydration, for example.
3.4 Creating the generalised typeset
The generalised typeset concept was, as mentioned above,
developed through the completion of a pilot study followed
by a later, and more comprehensive, study. The primary aim
driving the creation of each typeset was to create a body
of material against which archaeological material could
be compared in order to establish the fashioning method
or technique used to produce those archaeological vessels.
As such, this category of variable was the focal point
Figure 3.
The pilot study found that the assemblages could be represented by a total of eight shapes.
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during each of the experiments. While the pilot experiment
focused on diferentiating between three of the combination
wheel-fashioning methods described by Roux and Courty
(1998), the latter experiment involved fashioning vessels
with wheel-throwing as well as a specifc variation of one
wheel coiling method (Roux and Courty’s Method 3).
Focusing as it did on two specifc island contexts with
distinctive ceramic traditions, the pilot study found that the
assemblages could be represented by a total of eight shapes
(Figure 3). In this frst study, it was necessary to economise
production to suit the assemblages of the two distinct range
of shapes found in Crete and Cyprus during the studied time
periods. As such, common features were sought between
the two. For smaller vessels, there was a focus on including
small, short forms with roughly equal height and rim diameter
measurements (Figure 3a) and medium, short forms with
wide rim diameters relative to overall height (Figure 3b).
The larger vessels included large, wide forms with wide rim
diameters relative to the overall height (Figure 3c) as well as
variations on large, tall forms with smaller rim diameter than
vessel height dimensions (Figure 3d). Within this pilot, there
were no specifc expectations about the nature of production
traces which might be seen, simply that vessel form and scale
may infuence the nature of those traces at the macroscopic
scale.
For the pilot generalised typeset, wheel-coiling fashioning
method and vessel shape were explored, which allowed for
a better understanding of how those two variables relate to
one another. Each of the eight vessel shapes included was
constructed using each of the three wheel-coiling fashioning
methods, producing a total of 24 possible combinations.
Each of these combinations was produced fve times in order
to accommodate the probability that relevant forming traces
might not appear on every example, resulting in a typeset
comprised of 120 individual vessels.
For the fuller experimental generalised typeset, the
variables of fashioning technique, clay texture, and vessel
shape were explored. In contrast to the pilot typeset,
this fuller study was designed more explicitly for wider
applicability in terms of vessel shapes. From the survey
of Bronze Age Aegean ceramic forms, it was determined
that vessel lowers, middles, and uppers most often fell into
a handful of geometric groups. In this application, three
diferent variations for vessel lowers were explored: acute,
right, and obtuse angles. The traits identifed as meaningful
for the middle zone of the vessel in this application included
convex, straight, and concave. The upper zone possibilities
considered for this application included incurving, straight, or
everted. These features were combined in ways which found
stronger analogies in the east Mediterranean and specifcally
Aegean Bronze Age contexts. For example, the small vessel
with straight sides holds strong morphological similarity to
tall conical cups. Overall, fve diferent vessel shapes were
included in the creation of the typeset for the TPW project
(Figure 4). Each of the fve vessel shapes was constructed
using either wheel-coiling Method 3 or wheel-throwing, and
was formed of either of the two clay types. Each of these
20 combinations of form, fashioning, and clay was created
fve times, producing a typeset of 100 individual vessels.
3.5 Using the generalised typeset
The generalised typeset is best suited for comparison against
heterogeneous assemblages. The typeset represents one
step in the overall comparative research cycle which fnds
ever-more-precise analogy to determine potting practices to
reveal the details of the
chaîne opératoire
. In order to use the
generalised typeset for establishing fashioning technique,
the modular consideration of vessel zones must be revisited.
The frst priority for establishing strong analogies between
experimental typeset and archaeological material is to
compare experimental vessel forms which have similar
morphology to archaeological examples. In the absence
of these direct comparisons, archaeological vessels can be
understood by contrasting the lower, middle, and upper zones
of their profles against their experimental counterparts.
This more recent generalised typeset is currently available
to access in the Tracing the Potter’s Wheel information
hub, presented in high quality photographs, downloadable
3D models, video footage of the potting process, and
detailed metadata on observed macroscopic traces. This
open access data has been made publicly available in order
to allow researchers to readily beneft from the application
Figure 4.
Five diferent vessel shapes were included in the creation of the typeset for the TPW project.
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of analogies, regardless of their ability to conduct their
own experimental research. For those who are able to
conduct experimental research, the generalised typeset can
represent one burden of labour which they need not bear,
freeing up resources to conduct the more precise, actualistic
experiments on ceramics whose fashioning remains as
open-ended questions.
4. Conclusion
By employing a generalised typeset as an analogy to better
understand aspects of a heterogeneous assemblage, it is
possible to extend the relevance of research endeavours and
contribute to a wider world of collaborative scholarship,
while also economising on labour investment. A generalised
typeset is but one component within the broader picture
of investigations into the
chaîne opératoire
of pottery
production. Elsewhere, the author has advocated for
experiments to be explicitly situated according to their
applicability to aspects of and relevance to the
chaîne
opératoire
(Jefra, 2014), a point which equally applies
to the present work’s focus. What is a generalised
typeset good for? Plainly speaking, its main assets are its
potential for maximising the efort invested in completing
experimental work. If experimental archaeologists are given
the opportunity to ask new questions and only duplicate
work when the
fndings themselves
are being verifed, then
subsequent experiments will make incremental progress
on elucidating further aspects of the
chaîne opératoire
. In
seeking analogies on which to build an understanding of
past material culture production, previously conducted
experiments rarely ofer a ‘perfect ft’ for diferent contexts.
The response to accommodating heterogeneous assemblages
described herein ofers an opportunity for – if not quite
a ‘perfect ft’ – then at least a starting point from which
a ‘perfect ft’ analogy can be established.
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