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XII/2/2021
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
Identifying Wheel-Thrown Vases in Middle Minoan Crete? Preliminary
Analysis of Experimental Replicas of Plain Handleless Conical Cups from
Protopalatial Phaistos
Ilaria Caloi
1*
1
Department of Humanities, Ca’ Foscari University of Venice, Dorsoduro 3484/D, 30123 Venice, Italy
1. Introduction
There is now a general agreement among scholars that the
potter’s wheel was developed on Crete around 1900 BC
(
e.g.
, Evely, 1988; Knappett, 1999; Van de Moortel, 2006;
Caloi, 2011), corresponding to the frst emergence of palatial
societies, but there is no agreement on the manner of use of
this device across the island. Some scholars support the idea
that the potter’s wheel was used in combination with hand-
building, and especially coil-building, until the Late Bronze
Age (Jefra, 2013; Knappett, 2016); others state that wheel-
coiling was not the only forming technique adopted on the
island during the Middle Bronze Age, but that it co-existed
with other forming techniques, including that of wheel-
throwing (Speziale, 1999; MacGillivray, 1998; 2007; Van de
Moortel, 2006; Berg, 2009; 2011; Wiener, 2011; Caloi, 2011;
2019; Todaro, 2017).
One of the best approaches to assess the degree and manner
of use of the potter’s wheel is to examine the potential traces
left by it on fnished Minoan products, in comparison with
those left on experimental reproductions under known
conditions (Van der Leeuw, 1976; Rice, 1987; Courty, Roux,
1995; Outram, 2008; O’Sullivan
et al.
, 2014). For this
paper I used this approach, already applied at some scale
to the Minoan evidence by Jefra (2011; 2013), to test the
hypothesis that wheel-throwing was adopted in Protopalatial
Crete, and especially at Phaistos, in Middle Minoan IIA
(MM IIA). Unlike previous investigations, I chose to
reproduce only a specifc drinking pot – the plain handleless
conical cup in use in Protopalatial times – but using three
diferent techniques (wheel-pinching, wheel-coiling, and
throwing-of-the-hump). To do so, I sourced raw materials
(
i.e.
, natural clays collected from Southern Crete) and tools
(bronze and wood tools) that mirror those used in Minoan
times, together with a potter’s wheel reconstructed on the
basis of the archaeological evidence provided by Minoan
Volume XII ● Issue 2/2021 ● Pages 201–216
*Corresponding author. E-mail: icaloi@unive.it
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 1
st
February 2021
Accepted: 15
th
November 2021
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24916/iansa.2021.2.7
Key words:
Bronze Age Aegean
Minoan Crete
Experimental Archaeology
Ceramic-forming techniques
Potter’s Wheel
ABSTRACT
Recent work in Middle Bronze Age Crete has revealed that most Protopalatial or First Palace period
pottery is produced through the use of a combination of coil-building and the wheel,
i.e.
, wheel-
coiling. Experimental work conducted on pottery from Minoan sites of Northern and Eastern Crete
(
e.g.
, Knossos, Myrtos Pyrgos, Palaikastro) has indeed determined that Minoan potters did not develop
the skills required to adopt the wheel-throwing technique. However, my recent technological study
of Protopalatial ceramic material from Middle Minoan IIA (19
th
century BC) deposits from the First
Palace at Phaistos, in Southern Crete, has revealed that though pottery was produced by the wheel-
coiling techniques, yet other forming techniques were practised too.
In this paper I present a preliminary analysis of experimental replicas of MM IIA Phaistian plain
handleless conical cups, manufactured on the potter’s wheel using three diferent forming techniques:
wheel-pinching, wheel-coiling, and throwing-of-the-hump. This analysis will profer answers to
several questions on the use of the potter’s wheel in Middle Bronze Age Crete and opens the possibility
that at MM IIA Phaistos there co-existed potters who had developed skills to employ diferent forming
techniques on the wheel, including possibly that of throwing-of-the-hump.
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sites (Evely, Morrison, 2010) and a pit-kiln similar to the
ones found at Pre- and Protopalatial Phaistos (see Todaro,
2016 for this “best practice approach”).
The results point frst to the existence of ceramic traditions
that difer across the island and especially between Southern
Crete and North/Eastern Crete, and second to the co-existence
and co-working of potters employing diferent devices. It
appears that at Middle Bronze Age Phaistos, individual
potters or potting groups were operating, sharing only some
stages of the manufacturing process,
i.e.
, using the same clay
sources and recipes of clay pastes, but practising diferent
forming techniques. Alongside a variety of hand-building
techniques, some combined with the use of the wheel, it is
possible that also the wheel-throwing one was used to throw
small pots, though this is little or not at all attested elsewhere
on the island.
1.2 Background: the ceramic technology of
Protopalatial Crete (19
th
–18
th
century BC)
The Middle Bronze Age in Crete includes the last phase of
the Prepalatial period (
i.e.
, MM IA), the whole Protopalatial
period, which corresponds to the emergence of the First
Palaces on Crete, and the frst phase of the Neopalatial
period (
i.e.
, MM III) –
cf.
Table 1. I will mainly focus on the
Protopalatial period, which is subdivided into three phases:
MM IB, MM IIA and MM IIB (Table 1).
Most recent studies on the ceramic technology of
Protopalatial pottery from sites of Northern and Eastern
Crete (
i.e.
,
Knossos, Malia, Myrtos Pyrgos and Palaikastro
– Figure 1) have revealed that after the introduction of the
potter’s wheel in MM IB (19
th
century BC), the wheel-
coiling method was the only forming technique employed in
the island during the Protopalatial period and probably also
later in the successive periods (Jefra, 2013; Knappett, 2016;
contra
Berg, 2009; 2011). The four wheel-coiling methods
identifed by Roux and Courty (1998) in the prehistoric
Levant have been recognised in the evidence provided by the
Aegean world (Choleva, 2012). According to some studies on
the Minoan evidence as supported by experimental works, the
Minoans did not develop the skills to use the wheel-throwing
technique, but preferred to use a combination between coil-
building and the use of the wheel,
i.e.
, wheel-coiling (Jefra,
2011; 2013; Roux, Jefra, 2015). At the time of the wheel’s
adoption on Crete, these studies tend to argue that there
existed only one hand-building tradition, coil-building.
But a number of studies have also shown that in Prepalatial
Crete there existed other hand-building techniques, such as
slab-construction, used to produce the well-known Early
Minoan IIB Vasiliki Ware (Betancourt
et al.
, 1979), pinching
(Levi, Carinci, 1988; Van de Moortel, 2006), layering, and
press-moulding (Todaro, 2019). According to Todaro (2017;
2019), most of these techniques went on to be used in
combination with the potter’s wheel in Protopalatial times.
Moreover, some scholars support the idea that in MM IIA
the potter’s wheel was used in its full potential to produce
only small vessels, like the plain handleless conical cups.
MacGillivray, frst in 1998 (p.85) and again in 2007
(pp.130–132), suggested that at MM IIA Knossos a new
class of cups appeared, produced in Fine Buf Crude Ware,
which looks to be manufactured using the throwing-of-
the-hump technique. Together with other scholars (Wiener,
2011, pp.356–357), he proposed that “this innovation was
Table 1.
Phasing of Middle Bronze Age on Crete with absolute dating.
Prepalatial period MM IA
2150–1900 BC
Protopalatial period MM IB
1900–1850 BC
MM IIA
1850–1800 BC
MM IIB
1800–1700 BC
Neopalatial periodMM III
1700–1600 BC
Figure 1.
Map of Crete with an indication of Phaistos and other Minoan sites mentioned in the text.
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almost certainly borrowed from Egypt” (MacGillivray,
2007, p.131), where this technique, represented in a number
of depictions, was introduced during the V
th
Dynasty and
then used to produce miniature vases (Doherty, 2015). At
Protopalatial Knossos, some wheel-thrown handleless cups
have been recognised by means of X-radiography by Berg
(Berg, 2009; 2011; see also Knappett, 2004). In Southern
Crete, recent studies conducted at the sites of Phaistos (Caloi,
2011; 2019; Todaro, 2017; Baldacci, 2017), Kommos (Van
de Moortel, 2006, pp.328–329) and Ayia Triada (Baldacci,
forthcoming) have also shown that wheel-coiling was not the
only technique in use in the Protopalatial period.
In Minoan Crete, only ceramic discs have been recorded
in the archaeological record (Xanthoudides, 1927; Hampe,
Winter, 1962; Evely, 1988; Puglisi, 2018), while no actual
complete “Minoan wheels” have been preserved and
no representations of these instruments are available in
the Minoan media. For this reason, scholars have tried to
reconstruct the potter’s wheel used in Minoan times on the
sole basis of the archaeological evidence recorded at the
sites (Evely, 1988; Morrison, Park, 2008; Evely, Morrison,
2010) and through ethnographic parallels. In particular,
experimental archaeology using the potter’s wheel
reconstructed by Morrison with Park (2008) showed that this
device can produce enough rotational kinetic energy (RKE)
not only to fnish/shape vases, but also to throw vessels
of small dimensions. It is also relevant to mention that
experimental archaeology conducted using ancient Egyptian
wheels (defned as “high velocity, low inertia”) indicated
that the latter could be used to throw only lumps of clays not
heavier than 1–2 kg (Powell, 1995, p.394).
2. Methods
For this work, I pursued a combined approach. This
integrates the macroscopic examination of locally-made,
plain handleless cups and a detailed study of the traces
identifed on these same vessels with the testing of their
technological properties by experimental reproduction
carried out by a professional potter, Vassilis Politakis (
http://
www.spiritofgreece.gr/
).
Figure 2.
The schematic development of
the Phaistos handleless conical cups from
Early Minoan III to Late Minoan III with
an indication of the MM IIA experimental
cup forms (in the oblong) – with its three
variations – used for this experimental work
(after Fiandra, 1973, Plate 21).
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2.1 The experimental profle: the plain handleless
conical cup
As mentioned, for this paper I focus on one local product of
Protopalatial Phaistos, the MM IIA plain handleless conical
cup produced in fne buf fabric. There are three reasons for
this choice. First of all, this common drinking cup is a typical
shape of Phaistos (Fiandra, 1973, pp.86–88, Plate 21), well
attested in the palatial centre from the end of the Early
Bronze Age until the Late Bronze Age (Figure 2). It is also
present in the nearby sites sharing the ceramic tradition of
Phaistos (
e.g.
, Haghia Triada, Kommos) and in a few sites of
Southern Crete, especially the Mesara tholos tomb cemeteries
(
e.g.
, Kamilari and Koumasa), but absent or rarely attested
in the rest of the island at least until MM III (Levi, Carinci,
1988; Wiener, 2011). Hitherto, Knossos is the only site from
Northern Crete that has revealed deposits of MM IIA and
MM IIB containing this kind of cup (MacGillivray, 2007,
pp.130–132; Macdonald, Knappett, 2007, pp.113–115).
Second, the large number of MM IIA handleless conical cups
retrieved from structured deposits within the palace seem to
testify to the use of diferent techniques to produce them
(Caloi, 2012; 2016). Finally, these cups were manufactured
without being given a perfect fnish: the absence of any
secondary treatment of the vase surface allows for an easier
identifcation of traces left by the primary forming technique.
The pottery samples analysed in this study originated
from two MM IIA homogeneous deposits retrieved from
the main palatial edifce of the First Palace at Phaistos – the
South-West building – during the Doro Levi’s excavations
conducted from 1950 to 1966 (Levi, 1976) under the aegis
of the Italian Archaeological School at Athens. They come
respectively from Room IL and the Bastione II wall of the
palatial South-West building (Caloi, 2012; 2016). The frst
included 430 plain handleless conical cups, the second
300 examples.
The profle chosen for the experiment is the MM IIA one,
as presented by Fiandra (1973) in Plate 21, here illustrated
in Figure 2. This form, which ranges from a bell-shaped to
a strict conical profle, shows a pronounced hollow within the
base interior. The ceramic material used for the manufacture
of handleless conical cups of MM IIA is very fne, with
no inclusions. This is one of the main diferences with the
handleless conical cups of the previous period,
i.e.
, MM IB
(Caloi, 2009).
A variety of diagnostic attributes have been used for the
identifcation of pottery-forming techniques by a number
of scholars, like variability in topography of walls, type
of fractures, surface morphology, specifc breakage (Rice,
1987; Courty, Roux, 1995; Choleva, 2012; Jefra, 2011;
Roux, 2019). These attributes, however, are not always
preserved in the ceramic material and can be “polysemic”,
as defned by Courty and Roux (1995, p.18). This means that
they may be produced both by wheel-fashioning and wheel-
throwing (see also Rice, 1987).
With these limits in mind, I decided to focus not only on
single features, but on clusters that could be attributed to
a specifc forming technique. Future study will also include
the study of microscopic traces to understand whether
the orientation of pores and clay domains may help in
distinguishing the use of diferent forming techniques.
2.2 Experimental archaeology
Experimental archaeology was carried out in collaboration
with the professional potter Politakis, who reproduced
50 examples of MM IIA-style vases from Phaistos. Because
of the 2020 restrictions due to the Covid emergency, I was
not able to go to Crete and proceed with my project in person
there. For this reason, I could only manage to employ one
potter to produce replicas and I myself fashioned a limited
number. With these restrictive circumstances in mind, in
this paper I am going to present only the 50 experimental
plain handleless cups he produced using the three following
forming techniques: 1) pinching and then fnal shaping on
the wheel,
i.e.
, wheel-pinching; 2) coiling and shaping on
the wheel,
i.e.
, wheel-coiling; and 3) throwing-of-the-hump.
2.2.1 The kit-tool for experiments
Before describing the three forming techniques adopted, it is
important to note that the experimental work was undertaken
using materials and tools which mirror as much as possible
those in use in Minoan times, as sourced in the archaeological
evidence from palatial Crete.
I used natural clays collected from Southern Crete,
and especially from Moni Odiyitria and Vori; these clay
sources are compatible with those used in Prepalatial and
Protopalatial times to produce the well-known Mesara fne
decorated pottery, and especially the EM IIA Fine Painted
Ware and the MM IB-IIB Kamares Ware (Day, Relaki, Faber,
2006; Mentesana
et al.
, 2016). Two diferent clays were used:
the frst one was grey and the second, which was red, was
a colluvial
terra rossa
(Mentesana
et al.
, 2016, pp.305–306).
We mixed these two diferent clays using only water and did
not add other tempering. This last was done because most of
conical cups from MM IIA deposits are produced in a very
fne and pure fabric, which does not show inclusions, except
for the natural inclusions of the clay. Both the clays showed
good plasticity.
For my experimental reproductions, I adopted a replica of
a Minoan potter’s wheel constructed by Politakis on the basis
of the model proposed by scholars for the palatial period
on Crete, and especially by Evely (1988, Figure 10; 2000,
p.270) and Morrison (Evely, Morrison, 2010; Morrison, Park,
2008). In his workshop at Heraklion, Politakis constructed
the experimental wheel with a cross-bar (Figure 3). It is
set on the foor, not in a pit. It was composed of a ceramic
wheelhead (see Caloi, 2019, Figure 4c) that replicates the
ones found at Protopalatial Malia in Eastern Crete (Poursat,
Knappett, 2005, p.34; Evely, 1988, pp.90–91) with a central
scored socket on its lower side (Figure 3). The ceramic disc
was fxed to the ceramic supporting collar and the wooden
(oak wood) vertical axle, using hydrated clay. Then, as
a whole, the wheel was threaded through a hole in the cross-
beam support and into a heavy pivot stone sitting on the foor
(Figure 3).
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Within the framework of my own experiment with this
potter’s wheel, I decided to have the wheel operated by
an assistant who rotated the axle, leaving the potter to work
seated and with both hands free. The help of an assistant
allowed the wheel to maintain its rotary speed at a maximum
and to generate enough momentum to permit throwing/
fashioning on the wheel. The potter’s wheel functioned
well only when the assistant could help rotate the axle in
a constant way. We do not have any sources for Minoan Crete
concerning the presence of an assistant, but ethnographic
parallels in modern Crete helped in suggesting that a second
person was present (Evely, 1988). Using a speed calculator
(visible in Figure 3), we tried to keep up a speed constant
between 85–100 rpm.
The tools used to trim rims and to apply water to the
experimental vases on the wheel were respectively a bronze tool
and a natural sponge, while the strand used to cut of the vases
from the wheel surface was made from six hairs of a donkey.
The vases were fred at 720–800 degrees C in a pit-kiln
(Caloi, 2019, Figure 5), reconstructed by Politakis following
the Minoan pit-kilns, especially the Prepalatial and
Protopalatial ones found in the Potters’ Quarter of Phaistos
(
e.g.
, Todaro, 2009, p.337, Figure 2).
2.2.2 The experimental reproduction of three forming
techniques
The frst technique we attempted was the wheel-pinching,
that is the formation frst of a handleless cup from a small
clay ball (
i.e.
, by pinching it up) and then the fnal shaping
of this cup on the wheel (Figure 4a). For this experiment, we
followed the general outline for the pinching technique (Rice,
1987, pp.125–126). We frst made our clay into a lump, then
fashioned a hole by pressing a thumb down into its centre,
while supporting the outside with the fngers. Then, the walls
were progressively thinned by pressing and squeezing the
clay between the thumb and the fngers. When the roughout
was ready (Figure 4a), we put it on the wheel in order to thin
the walls and shape the fnal form. We created 15 replicas.
The second technique involved the coil-building of
a cup and its fnal shaping on the wheel,
i.e.
, wheel-coiling
Figure 3.
The potter’s wheel reconstructed
by V. Politakis, broadly following the
reconstructions proposed by D. Evely and
J. Morrison. Photograph by author.
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(Figure 4b). We used three coils with circular sections of 1 cm
thickness, set on a circular base 1 cm thick and 3 cm across.
The joints between the coils were oriented to the interior, to
match the traces of coils left on the analysed archaeological
material from MM IIA deposits of Phaistos (see Figure 16).
Once the coils were positioned, the wheel was exploited for
joining the coils, thinning the walls and shaping the roughout
(Figure 4b). Once the roughout was achieved, the pot was
fnally shaped in both its upper and lower parts on the wheel.
The surfaces were left as they were, without smoothing
them. This technique corresponds to the above-mentioned
wheel-coiling Method 3, frst defned by Roux and Courty
(1998) for the Southern Levant, and then recognised by
Jefra (2011; 2013) and Choleva (2012) in Aegean ceramics.
We created 10 replicas.
The third technique was throwing-of-the-hump
(Figure 4c): so fashioning cups or small vases from the clay
at the top of a large lump, also called a mound. Placing the
mound on the wheel as one piece, it was centred, starting
from the top. The clay was pressed down against the wheel
head as it was centred. The second step was opening up the
very top of the mound and pulling the clay up to make the
cup. Finally, the cup was cut of of the hump with the strands
of hair (Figure 4c). We also tried to cut the vase of the hump
using a bronze needle.
We created 25 replicas.
2.2.3 Analysis of the replicas: trace description and
comparative study
The analysis of replicas has shown that there are some
features that seem to be attributable to a specifc forming
technique, whereas there are others that seem random and
cannot be accepted as clear evidence of a specifc forming
technique, like the thinning of the rim or the striations on the
base exterior. Most of them have been already discussed by
Courty and Roux (1995), Jefra (2011), Choleva (2012), and
Roux (2019, pp.178–180).
In a number of cases, replicas show specifc features or
clusters of features that are attributable to a single forming
technique, as indicated by the macroscopic traces left
on the vase. For this particular experiment, for example,
strong fnger imprints on the outer face, especially on the
lower part of the vase (Figures 5 and 6) when associated
with rilling on the upper part (inside and/or outside) are
features identifed only on wheel-pinched vases. The
outer face may also show crevices in association with the
hollows left by the fnger imprints (Figure 6). The inner
face frequently presents a smooth, fuidifed surface or may
show fngerprints and/or short lines near the rim left by the
potter’s fnger (Figure 6).
There are some features that seem attested only on
wheel-coiled vases, like short fssures, which appear more
frequently on the inner face, but also on the outer face
(Figure 7), and are often associated with compression folds
(Figure 7). These fssures can be horizontal or curvilinear,
as described by Jefra for replicas of Protopalatial cups from
North/North Eastern Crete (Jefra, 2011). On some wheel-
coiled replicas, there remain only horizontal lines, indicating
the imperfect joining of the coils: they are visible in the
inner face and may fnd a counterpart in the cross-section
(Figure 8). Wheel-pinched and wheel-thrown vessels instead
do not show any fssures. Wheel-thrown vessels may more
frequently show tears, which could rather be due to a too fast
rising of the clay (Figure 11, right).
a
c
b
Figure 4.
The three forming techniques used by the potter V. Politakis to reproduce MM IIA handleless conical cups from Phaistos: a) pinching and fnal
shaping on the wheel; b) wheel-coiling; c) throwing-of-the-hump. Photographs by author.
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Figure 5.
Handleless conical cup reproduced by V. Politakis using pinching and fnal shaping on the potter’s wheel (wheel-pinching) with arrows indicating
strong fnger imprints on the outer face, near the base. Photograph by author.
Figure 6.
Handleless conical cup reproduced by V. Politakis using pinching and fnal shaping on the potter’s wheel (wheel-pinching) with arrows indicating
strong fnger imprints and crevices on the outer face (left), short lines and fngerprints on the inner face (right). Photographs by author.
Figure 7.
Handleless conical cup reproduced by V. Politakis using wheel-coiling with arrows indicating a deep horizontal fssure on the outer face (left),
and curvilinear fssures and compression folds on the inner face (right). Photograph by author.
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Figure 8.
Handleless conical cup reproduced by V. Politakis using wheel-coiling with arrows indicating curvilinear lines on the inner face (left) and related
discontinuities in the cross-section (right). Photograph by author.
Figure 9.
Handleless conical cups reproduced by V. Politakis using the throwing-of-the-hump technique with deep and narrow hollows on the base interior,
with arrow indicating clay bumps. Photograph by author.
Figure 10
. Handleless conical cups reproduced by V. Politakis using the throwing-of-the-hump technique with deep and narrow hollows with arrows
indicating clay-barb protrusions (left) and clay bumps (right). Photographs by author.
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There are also wheel-coiled replicas that do not show
specifc features whatsoever, likely due to the fact that the
coils have been impeccably joined. As already underlined by
several authors (
e.g.
, Van der Leeuw, 1976, p.123; Courty,
Roux, 1995; Roux, 2019), the fnal shaping of vases can
cover up any and all traces imparted during the primary
forming technique.
On the analysed replicas, there are some clusters of features
that seem to characterise the wheel-thrown vases, like a deep
and narrow hollow on the interior of the vase, associated
with clay lumps and bumps (Figure 9) and clay barb-like
protrusions (Figure 10). Unlike the shallow hollow attested
on some wheel-pinched and wheel-coiled experimental cups,
that on the wheel-thrown ones is usually deep (0.5 cm.),
narrow (0.5–1.5 cm), and of a conical section (Figures 9 and
10). It is often associated with evidence of wet clay, such as
sticky fngerprints or wrinkles. The diferent shape of the
hollow could depend on the speed of the wheel, but also on
the procedure used to produce it, that is the depression of the
potter’s fnger at the beginning of the forming and opening-
up process. This feature, which so far cannot be considered
univocal,
i.e.
, diagnostic of the wheel-throwing technique, has,
however, also been observed by Doherty on the wheel-thrown
miniatures vases from Naqada in Egypt (Doherty, 2015).
The abovementioned evidence of exceptionally wet clay,
the barb-like protrusions (Figure 9 and 10) and/or sticky
Figure 11.
Handleless conical cups reproduced by V. Politakis using the throwing-of-the-hump technique with deep and narrow hollows, with arrows
indicating a spiralling incised line (left), and sticky fngerprints and a tear (right). Photographs by author.
Figure 12.
Handleless conical cups reproduced by V. Politakis using the throwing-of-the-hump technique and cut of the hump with a bronze needle.
Photographs by author.
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fngerprints (Figure 11, right), could refect the fact that the
throwing-of-the-hump technique requires the clay to be kept
continuously wet.
Another feature observed only on wheel-thrown replicas
is the presence of an incised spiralling line going from the
base to the rim (Figure 11, left), which is obtained by the
fnger nails of the potter or by the trailing of an impurity
during the throwing of the pot. This feature is not attested on
wheel-coiled replicas, where instead there are attested only
linear and non-continuous incisions on the walls or near the
rim.
When a needle was used to cut a cup of the hump, a very
deep and semicircular incision/deformation was produced on
the exterior base (Figure 12).
The experimental material has facilitated the identifcation
of macroscopic trace combinations indicative of specifc
forming techniques, even if it is clear that archaeological
material requires the use of more approaches.
2.3 Analysis of the archaeological material
The main characteristics of the two above-mentioned
MM IIA ceramic deposits from the First Palace of Phaistos
(Room IL bench and Bastione II wall) have been already
preliminarily published in a few papers (Caloi, 2012; 2019),
where I proposed that at least three specifc classes of pottery
and shapes seemed to be being produced through the wheel-
throwing technique, whereas the rest were manufactured
using the wheel-fashioning technique.
A total amount of 730 conical cups from these deposits
have been analysed from a macroscopic perspective
(Figure 13).
Before describing the conical cups that seem to be
produced through the wheel-pinching, the wheel-coiling and
the throwing-of-the hump techniques, I want to point out
that in these deposits there are many specimens that cannot
be attributed to a specifc forming technique on the basis of
the macroscopic traces left. They could have been wheel-
thrown, wheel-coiled or produced using other primary
forming techniques (
e.g.
, press-moulding, slab-construction,
layering) combined with the potter’s wheel. Accordingly,
this presentation of the archaeological material does not
seek to quantify the wheel-pinched, wheel-coiled and wheel-
thrown cups. Besides the handleless conical cups, several
other types of vessels from the analysed deposits seem to
have been produced using the layering technique (
e.g.
,
jars and basins), the slab construction, as well as the press-
moulding (
e.g.
, cups and shallow bowls), in combination
with the potter’s wheel.
From a macroscopic point of view, the MM IIA plain
handleless cups from Phaistos that seem produced through
pinching and then the potter’s wheel show the following
characteristics: the lower part of the cup, near the base,
displays many fnger imprints, which can be associated with
crevices (Figure 14), while the upper part, below the rim,
shows a smooth, fuidifed surface (Figure 14). The crevices,
described by Roux (2019, pp.144–145) as tears in the paste,
seem the result of a combination of shear stress and torsion.
The inner face often shows a smooth surface. The rilling,
whether regular (Figure 14a) or irregular (Figure 14b), is
mainly visible at the external rim, rather than on the interior.
On some specimens, it can be visible also on the external base.
Macroscopically, the MM IIA Phaistian plain
handleless cups that seem wheel-coiled have the following
characteristics: the inner and outer faces are often
characterised by horizontal/curvilinear fssures (Figure 15,
right), microcracks (Figures 15 and 16), and lines (Figure 16).
Likewise, small, but aligned, microcracks can be visible
on the inner face, sometimes associated with compression
folds (Figure 15, left). All these features correspond to the
incomplete joining of the coils. The latter can also be visible
in the cross-section (Figure 16).
From a macroscopic point of view, the plain handleless
cups that seem thrown-of-the-hump show the following
characteristics: a narrow, deep and conical-in-section
hollow in the inner base, often associated with clay barb-
like protrusions and/or bumps (Figure 17). On these same
specimens, the exterior of the base shows a deep and semi-
circular incision, likely due to the use of a needle to cut
Figure 13.
MM IIA Phaistian handleless conical cups from the deposit of Bastione II wall. Photograph by author.
image/svg+xml
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211
Figure 14.
Phaistian handleless conical cups macroscopically interpreted as wheel-pinched vases with arrows indicating fnger imprints and crevices on the
outer faces, near the bases. Photographs by author.
Figure 15.
Phaistian handleless conical cups macroscopically interpreted as wheel-coiled vases with arrows indicating compression folds, horizontal
fssures and aligned microcracks (left), and horizontal fssures (right) on the inner faces. Photographs by author.
Figure 16.
Phaistian handleless conical cups macroscopically interpreted as wheel-coiled vases with arrows indicating fssures and microcracks on the inner
face (left), coils in cross-section (left), and horizontal lines on the outer face. Photographs by author.
a
b
image/svg+xml
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212
Figure 17.
Phaistian handleless conical cups macroscopically interpreted as wheel-thrown vases with deep and narrow hollows with arrows indicating clay-
barb protrusions (left) and clay bumps (right); bases showing deep semi-circular incisions. Photographs by author.
Figure 18.
Phaistian handleless conical cups macroscopically interpreted as wheel-thrown vases with spiralling incised lines, sometimes associated with
spiralling, even, and continuous grooves (left). Photographs by author.
the cup of the hump, as we observed on the wheel-thrown
replicas (Figure 12). The inner face can be regular and
smooth (Figure 17, right). It may sometimes present cracks
(Figure 17, left and Figure 18, left). Sticky fngerprints may
appear on the inner face (Figure 18, left), but also on the
outer face.
Another feature that seems to characterise the apparently
wheel-thrown cups is an incised spiralling line going from
the base to the rim (Figure 18), which is often associated
with even and continuous grooves.
It is interesting to observe that most of these vases show
standard measurements in comparison to identifed wheel-
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coiled or wheel-pinched cups. They usually have a maximum
height of 4.5 cm, a rim diameter of 7.5–8 cm and a very small
base, ranging from 2.7 to 3.3 cm.
3. Results: coupling macroscopic analysis with experi-
mental archaeology
Comparing the results from experimental archaeology and
macroscopic analysis, it seems that the pinching technique
combined with fnishing on the wheel should be the one
used by Phaistian potters to produce those MM IIA cups that
show both a smoothed rim and strong fnger imprints near
the base – something usually not present on the identifed
wheel-coiled cups – but no fssures and microcracks on the
inner face. The near absence of fssures is likely due to the
fact that pinched vases are built from a single clay ball. Since
pinched-and-wheel vases show a strong diference in the
care paid to the upper and to the lower part; it is likely that
during the last shaping of the vase on the wheel, the attention
of the potter was mainly focused on the rim.
Some Phaistian vases produced in MM IB (Caloi, 2013,
Plate XXIII, Numbers 395–398, 400 and 404), the phase
preceding the MM IIA one, present traces that are very
similar to the ones identifed on these pinched-and-wheel-
fnished vases. It is therefore likely that this mixed technique
was in use already in MM IB to produce small drinking
pots and was then continued in the following MM IIA. It
is important to note that a progression in the shape can be
seen from EM III-MM IA – when there occurred the hand-
made pinched conical cups (Todaro, 2017) – through to the
following periods (
i.e.
, MM IB and MM IIA), when the same
cups were frst produced using the pinching technique and
then fnished on the potter’s wheel to smooth the rim.
Concerning wheel-coiled vases, the macroscopic analysis
associated with the experimental archaeology has shown that
the MM IIA Phaistian handleless cups that reveal horizontal/
curvilinear fssures and/or aligned microcracks should be
wheel-coiled rather than wheel-thrown (Figure 19). We
have already observed that these features are due to the
incomplete junctions which can occur between the coils.
The latter are not always visible in cross-section, but their
junctions may occur both on the interior and exterior walls of
the vase. The compressed folds are another feature attested
on MM IIA conical cups that fnds good analogies only on
wheel-coiled replicas. Since handleless conical cups did not
receive a fnal treatment of the surface, the junctions of the
coils often remain visible.
The Phaistian cups that fnd close similarities with
thrown-of-the-hump replicas are those presenting a deep
and narrow hollow in the inner base, often associated with
evidence of wet clay, and possibly clay bumps, clay barb-
like protrusions, droplets, and sticky fngerprints (Figure 20;
see also Figure 17). These features cannot be considered
Figure 19.
Comparing MM IIA Phaistian handleless conical cups macroscopically interpreted as wheel-coiled vases (left) with experimental reproductions
using the wheel-coiling technique (right). Photographs by author.
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214
univocal features of the wheel-throwing technique and only
future analyses will give more answers on this. It is, however,
relevant to mention that Doherty (2015, p.89, Figure 6.23)
has recently shown that in Egyptian miniature wheel-thrown
cups from Naqada, the deep hole, that she called a dimple,
and evidence of exceptionally wet clay, are diagnostic
features of the wheel-throwing technique.
The Phaistian handleless cups showing a spiralling incision
going from the base to the rim (Figure 18) fnd interesting
similarities with the wheel-thrown replicas (Figure 11, left).
Moreover, one of these Phaistian cups (Figure 18, left)
shows another feature that could be attributable to the wheel-
throwing technique, namely the presence of spiralling, even,
and continuous grooves (see Courty, Roux, 1995; Berg, 2019).
We have already observed that some Phaistian cups
(Figure 17) display a semicircular incision on the base
exterior that is very similar to the ones visible on those
wheel-thrown replicas, which have been cut of the hump
using a needle (Figure 12).
4. Discussion and conclusion
The experimental archaeology I conducted with the potter
Politakis has greatly improved our understanding of the
diferent forming techniques in use in Middle Minoan Crete.
The similarities found between the archaeological material from
Phaistos and the replicas of three diferent forming techniques
argues that wheel-coiling was not the only forming technique
in use on Protopalatial Crete. Alongside this, it is possible that
other hand-building techniques, like pinching, were used in
combination with the rotary motion that the adopted potter’s
wheel permitted. The experimental archaeology presented
here has also revealed that the archaeological material from
Phaistos seems to present traces that suggest the potter’s
wheel was employed in its full potentiality,
i.e.
, the wheel-
throwing technique, and more specifcally for throwing-
of-the-hump. However, it is important to say – as already
pointed out – that the experimental analysis I did has not been
fnished yet, hence there is no conclusive evidence for the use
of the wheel-throwing technique at Protopalatial Phaistos.
Further experimentation and analysis are therefore planned
to investigate this. Thus, the use of X-radiography and CT
scanning could be the best way forward in the future. Recent
studies have indeed shown that these approaches can provide
further insight on the hand-made or wheel-thrown origins
of a vase (see Doherty, 2015; Kozatsas
et al.
, 2018). The
latter, associated with new analyses on the orientation of clay
components in the fabric (see Thér, 2016; Thér, Toms, 2016),
will probably help in defning the primary forming technique
used to produce the hundreds of plain handleless cups from
Phaistos that do not show any visible traces attributable to
a specifc technique (Figure 13).
In conclusion, this study should hopefully prompt scholars
to (re)consider the appearance of wheel-made pottery in
an archaeological context, bearing in mind the complexity
and the dynamics in the diferent ways the potter’s wheel can
be utilised.
Figure 20.
Comparing MM IIA Phaistian handleless conical cups macroscopically interpreted as wheel-thrown vases (left) with experimental reproductions
using the throwing-of-the-hump technique (right). Photographs by author.
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215
Acknowledgements
My warmest thanks go to Filippo Carinci for giving me the
opportunity to work at Phaistos and to study the Protopalatial
pottery of the site. Special thanks to Simona Todaro for
discussing many aspects of this paper with me and to Mattia
Zantedeschi for helping me with the pictures. I am thankful
to Don Evely for improving the English of my paper and to
the two anonymous reviewers for their useful suggestions.
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