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XI/1/2020
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
Rituals, Hoards and Travellers? Archaeometry of the Iron Age
Bronze Wheel Amulets
Alžběta Danielisová
a*
, Daniel Bursák
a
, Ladislav Strnad
b
, Jakub Trubač
b
,
Hana Čižmářová
d
, David Daněček
a,c
, Kamil Smíšek
c
a
Institute of Archaeology CAS, Prague, Letenská 4, 118 01, Prague 1, Czech Republic
b
Institute of Geochemistry, Mineralogy and Mineral Resources, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Albertov 6, 128 43, Prague 2, Czech Republic
c
Středočeské muzeum v Roztokách u Prahy, Zámek 1, 252 63, Roztoky, Czech Republic
d
Moravské zemské muzeum, Archeologický ústav, Zelný trh 6, 659 37, Brno, Czech Republic
1. Introduction
Wheel rings or spoked-wheel amulets are a ubiquitous and
popular part of the material culture of the La Tène period.
They occur from the 5
th
century BC onwards, from France
to Hungary, across the vast territory of the La Tène culture.
The symbolism of wheel amulets remains unexplained. They
are usually associated with Sun symbology, as chariots or
wheels represented the Sun carriage from the Bronze Age
(Green, 1984). Another common association is with other
celestial bodies or phenomena, typically thunder (Green,
1986).
In material culture, spoked wheels were most probably
used in personal jewellery, perhaps as amulets or special
symbols, as is suggested by their depiction on Celtic coins
(
e.g.
Manching,
cf.
van Endert, 1991) and evidence from
burials since the early La Tène (Werner, 1979; Hecht
et al.
,
1991; Stöckli, 1975). They were often worn as pendants on
necklaces or suspended from brooches on bronze chains (
e.g.
numerous fnds from the oppidum of Stradonice; Píč, 1903).
In central Europe, a signifcant concentration was
observed at the oppidum of Stradonice (Figure 1; Píč, 1903;
Kysela and Venclová, 2018), and at Manching (van Endert,
1991), which suggested that the amulets were typical oppida
objects; they had frst been described as such in Déchelette’s
well-known comparative table (1914). In recent years,
however, they have been observed in increasing numbers
in the countryside, largely as a result of the increased use
of metal detectors (Čižmářová, 2014; Danielisová
et al.
,
2018a). They are now known to be present at almost every
site from the middle to the late La Tène period (
i.e.
3
rd
to 1
st
century BC) with a particular profusion during the “oppida
period” (2
nd
to 1
st
century BC).
The spoked wheels difer in size, shape, and number of
spokes (Čižmářová, 2014). The basic and typologically most
homogeneous group comprises the eight-spoked wheels
Volume XI ● Issue 1/2020 ● Pages 33–45
*Corresponding author. E-mail: danielisova@arup.cas.cz
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 1
st
April 2020
Accepted: 9
th
July 2020
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.24916/iansa.2020.1.3
Key words:
Iron Age
Central Europe
amulets
coin hoards
fahlores
trace elements
lead isotopes
ABSTRACT
This paper aims to discuss the origin and signifcance of the so-called spoked-wheel amulets from the
late Iron Age (3
rd
to 1
st
century BC). The type with eight spokes, which most resembles a real chariot
wheel, was discovered to be made of a specifc alloy containing a large amount of lead and a signifcant
amount of antimony, plus traces of silver and arsenic. This combination of elements signifes the use
of a copper known as
fahlore
(tetrahedrite). Its use in Bohemia after the early Bronze Age is rarely
observed, if at all. These amulets are therefore a conspicuous exception. Research in Bavaria has
revealed other objects made from
fahlore
copper. Another connection to Bavaria may be indicated by
coin hoards accompanied by bronze closure rings of a similar alloy design. Other cases may suggest
that antimony was added as a separate component. Here we discuss the composition and provenance of
these objects from the perspective of compositional and lead isotope analysis.
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IANSA 2020 ● XI/1 ● 33–45
Alžběta Danielisová, Daniel Bursák, Ladislav Strnad, Jakub Trubač, Hana Čižmářová, David Daněček, Kamil Smíšek: Rituals, Hoards and Travellers?
Archaeometry of the Iron Age Bronze Wheel Amulets
34
which imitate chariot wheels. They are usually made entirely
from lead or from a heavily-leaded alloy (Schwab, 2011).
The eight spokes are a regular feature; sometimes there are
multiples of eight, as with the sixteen-spoked wheel depicted
on a Gundestrup cauldron (Green, 1986). Four- and six-
spoked wheels make up a larger and more heterogeneous
group. These wheels appear only to suggest rather than
imitate chariot wheels and have a simpler design that is
perhaps more decorative in the context of late La Tène art.
Archaeometric analysis of large assemblages from the La
Tène period revealed the recurrence of a particular material
composition of the eight-spoked wheels (Danielisová
et al.
,
2018b), which included a large amount of lead, unusually
large amounts of antimony, and increased amounts of arsenic
and sometimes silver. It was noteworthy that this chemical
composition was found only in these amulets and not in the
other types of object. West of Bohemia, however, particularly
in Bavaria, antimony bronzes have regularly been recorded
and associated with the alloying of
fahlore
copper (Schwab,
2011; 2014a; 2014b). It was not until we detected the same
composition in two bronze rings with a rhombic section,
used as a closure mechanism in the context of a Celtic coin
hoard from Libčice nad Vltavou (Figures 2 and 3), that the
connection with Bavaria became worth considering.
We therefore decided to give more attention to this
matter and to investigate the alloy design and provenance
of these objects and to explore the broader socio-cultural or
political implications. In addition to “ofcial” commercial
Figure 1.
Types of wheel amulet from the La Tène period (the oppidum of Stradonice), after Píč, 1903.
Figure 2.
Map of sites mentioned in the
text and main deposits of
fahlore
coppers
and antimonites in central Europe. Filled
symbols: wheel amulets; hollow symbols:
rings with a rhombic section; sites
represent coin hoards, oppida, and lowland
settlements.
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Alžběta Danielisová, Daniel Bursák, Ladislav Strnad, Jakub Trubač, Hana Čižmářová, David Daněček, Kamil Smíšek: Rituals, Hoards and Travellers?
Archaeometry of the Iron Age Bronze Wheel Amulets
35
Figure 3.
a) Analysed spoked-wheel amulets from selected sites (
cf.
Figure 2). The numbers in the picture correspond to the numbers in Table 1 (some
objects were not available for documentation). Photo by D. Bursák and A. Danielisová. b) Rings with a rhombic section from coin hoards at Libčice
(LIB1–2) and Manching (485–486), and a ring of the same composition from the oppidum of Staré Hradisko (SH 136). Photo by D. Bursák and D. Daněček
(LIB1–2); Manching rings (485–486) from Zieghaus, 2013.
0 5 cm
0 3 cm
a)
b)
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Alžběta Danielisová, Daniel Bursák, Ladislav Strnad, Jakub Trubač, Hana Čižmářová, David Daněček, Kamil Smíšek: Rituals, Hoards and Travellers?
Archaeometry of the Iron Age Bronze Wheel Amulets
36
connections in these areas, which can be seen from the
common material culture and the exchange of coins, subtler
social mechanisms based on personal mobility or an elusive
world of rituals may have also been at play.
2. Materials and Methods
We were able to sample a total of 28 eight- and four-spoked
bronze ring amulets and rings (
cf.
Table 1, Figure 3a, 3b),
from seven sites (Figure 2), selected from an assemblage of
La Tène period objects analysed under a project looking at
copper alloys of the later Iron Age. We obtained data on the
composition of all 28 objects; further analysis was carried
out on 22 of them to determine their lead isotopic signature.
Samples were drilled to the metal core in order to avoid the
corrosion layers (
cf.
Lutz and Pernicka, 1996) and to collect
the minimum amount of material necessary for analysis.
The objects were small and highly corroded, so the sample
weight varied between 0.01 and 0.05 g.
Analysis of the chemical composition and lead isotopes
was performed at the Institute of Geochemistry, Mineralogy
and Mineral Resources, Charles University, Prague. Mass
spectrometry (ICP-MS) and lead isotope analysis (MC-
ICP-MS) were applied in order to determine the chemical
composition and possible provenance of the artefacts. The
major elements (Cu, Sn, Pb) and trace elements (Sb, Ag,
As, Zn, Ni, Co, Fe, Bi) were determined using modifed
digestion in mineral acids (HNO
3
+HCl, 3:1), followed
by conventional solution nebulization ICP-MS iCAPQ
(Thermo, Bremen) and/or ICP OES Agilent 5110 (Agilent,
USA). Approx. 0.01–0.02 g of each sample was digested in
2.5 ml of the acid mixture (HNO
3
+HCl, 3:1) in PTFE vessels
(Savillex, USA) on a hot plate (100°C for 1–2 hours) and
transferred to a 25 ml volumetric fask. All the samples and
procedural blanks were further diluted one thousand-fold
Table 1.
List of the analysed objects, their types, and contexts (“4-ray”: four-spoked wheel amulets; “8-ray”: eight-spoked wheel amulets; “ring”: bronze
ring with a rhombic section).
Id.Inv. numberSiteContextType of amulet
1
ZAV1Závist
oppidum
4-ray
2ZAV2Závist
oppidum
4-ray
3
ZAV5Závist
oppidum
4-ray
4
ZAV6Závist
oppidum
4-ray
5
detekt.Žehuň
settlement
4-ray
6
2/20012-22aŽehuň
settlement
4-ray
72/2012-22bŽehuň
settlement
4-ray
8
2/2012-22cŽehuň
settlement
4-ray
9
2/2012-5Žehuň
settlement
4-ray
102/2012-2Žehuň
settlement
4-ray
11
3/2012-2Žehuň
settlement
4-ray
122/2013-4Žehuň
settlement
4-ray
13
A33038Třísov
oppidum
4-ray
14
A33041-01Třísov
oppidum
4-ray
15
A33162Třísov
oppidum
4-ray
16
ZAV7Závist
hallstatt hillfort
4-ray
17ZAV8Závist
hallstatt hillfort
6-ray
18
ZAV3Závist
oppidum
8-ray
19
ZAV4Závist
oppidum
8-ray
20MĚ 177.916Měrovice
settlement
8-ray
21SH 057798Staré Hradisko
oppidum
8-ray
22HRZ 019
Hrazanyoppidum
8-ray
232/2012-18gŽehuň
settlement
8-ray
24A33041-02Třísov
oppidum
8-ray
25
A33164
Třísov
oppidum
8-ray
26
LIB1
Libčice
hoardring
27LIB2Libčice
hoardring
28
SH 136
Staré Hradisko
oppidumring
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Alžběta Danielisová, Daniel Bursák, Ladislav Strnad, Jakub Trubač, Hana Čižmářová, David Daněček, Kamil Smíšek: Rituals, Hoards and Travellers?
Archaeometry of the Iron Age Bronze Wheel Amulets
37
Table 2.
Chemical composition of the samples. Data were normalized to 100%. For detection limits see the table (n.d. = below detection limit).
Id.
inv.number
Type of amulet
Co
%
Ni
%
Cu
%
Zn
%
As
%
Ag
%
Sn
%
Sb
%
Pb
%
Bi
ppm
Total
%
Analytical total
%
detection limit
<0.005%<0.01%<0.05%<0.01%<0.10%<0.005%<0.05%<0.005%<0.001%<50ppm
1
ZAV14-ray0.0250.097
65.8
0.640.1530.0348.240.07424.895
n.d.
10065.90
2ZAV24-ray
n.d.
0.03262.47.210.1371.30821.37
n.d.
7.574
n.d.
10084.04
3
ZAV54-ray
n.d.
0.04071.70.030.3690.369
4.98
2.87119.607
n.d.
100101.40
4
ZAV64-ray0.1110.10472.8
n.d.
0.2820.06021.020.159
5.495n.d.
100102.59
5
detekt.4-ray0.0910.04172.4
n.d.
0.3180.098
14.69
0.09612.299
n.d.
10095.00
6
2/20012-22a4-ray0.0430.08576.30.180.2040.051
5.99
0.06217.059
n.d.
10095.74
72/2012-22b4-ray
n.d.
0.019
85.8n.d.n.d.
0.0236.230.0347.894
n.d.
100
98.19
8
2/2012-22c4-ray0.0070.04077.8
n.d.n.d.
0.163
6.11
0.028
15.883n.d.
100
89.61
9
2/2012-54-ray0.1390.05983.7
n.d.
0.2610.037
11.84
0.0233.977
n.d.
10092.18
102/2012-24-ray0.0330.05684.7
n.d.
0.1750.0448.900.107
5.996n.d.
10092.13
11
3/2012-24-ray0.0170.21377.90.030.1480.07710.520.08010.977
n.d.
10086.25
122/2013-44-ray0.0250.13271.80.100.2070.061
8.83
0.05918.777
n.d.
10071.24
13
A330384-ray0.0310.102
89.5
0.020.0970.0238.090.0592.080
n.d.
100
98.53
14
A33041-014-ray0.0480.07072.30.010.3040.232
9.95
0.150
16.891
172.6609100
94.43
15
A331624-ray
n.d.n.d.
68.00.02
n.d.
0.11411.170.65020.051
n.d.
10093.75
16
ZAV74-ray0.0140.07770.8
n.d.
0.1370.06323.370.225
5.335n.d.
100101.45
17ZAV86-ray0.0170.031
58.1n.d.
0.1250.045
11.93
0.04729.745
n.d.
100
83.33
18
ZAV38-ray
n.d.
0.06371.4
n.d.
0.6410.2942.77
5.86418.969n.d.
100
86.44
19
ZAV48-ray
n.d.
0.04670.8
n.d.
0.7220.200
1.836.995
19.442
n.d.
10090.09
20MĚ 177.9168-ray
n.d.
0.0750.10.180.562<0.0050.307.385
91.419n.d.
100103.18
21SH 0577988-ray
n.d.
0.03657.9
n.d.
0.7450.2284.505.08831.424
439.6541
10093.17
22HRZ 0198-ray
n.d.
0.256
55.8
0.060.7160.1185.127.88429.997
n.d.
10088.37
232/2012-18g8-ray
n.d.
0.094
59.3
0.480.3680.4194.37
3.496
31.475
n.d.
10099.02
24A33041-028-ray
n.d.
0.06652.5
n.d.
0.4840.3818.04
5.155
33.37997.10824100103.36
25
A33164
8-ray
n.d.
0.032
63.6n.d.
0.2280.700
5.33
3.73926.334
n.d.
100
94.45
26
LIB1ringn.d.
0.08862.90.040.3140.0252.73
5.166
28.71144.4692810095.87
27LIB2
ringn.d.
0.096
55.9
0.010.5500.0242.02
5.554
35.87240.1812310096.40
28
SH 136ringn.d.
0.080
61.3
0.130.6740.090
3.55
5.03929.17677.2806410097.56
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Alžběta Danielisová, Daniel Bursák, Ladislav Strnad, Jakub Trubač, Hana Čižmářová, David Daněček, Kamil Smíšek: Rituals, Hoards and Travellers?
Archaeometry of the Iron Age Bronze Wheel Amulets
38
by 2% (v/v) HNO
3
before measurements were taken. All
the chemicals used in the dissolution were reagent grade
(Merck, Germany) and the acids were double distilled.
Deionized water from a Millipore system (Millipore, USA)
was used for all dilutions. All solutions were stored in HDPE
(Nalgene) bottles. The ICP-QMS analytical protocol and
calibration strategy closely followed those described by
Strnad
et al.
, 2007 and 2016. The analytical precision of the
ICP-MS data for all the analysed elements ranged from 0.3%
to 3% relative (
cf.
Table 2).
To determine provenance, the samples for lead isotopic
analysis were dissolved in 5 ml of aqua regia (1:1 HNO
3
and HCl). Lead was separated using Sr-spec resin (Triskem)
and ultrapure 6M HCl (Romil) as elution media. The
isotopic analysis was performed using Neptune MC-ICP-
MS (Thermo-Fisher Scientifc). Samples were spiked with
thallium reference material NIST SRM 997 and the mass
bias was corrected with the generalized power law using
203Tl/205Tl = 0.418922 (Košler
et al.
, 2008). The lead
isotopic data were corrected using the standard-sample
bracketing approach relative to NIST declared values for
the SRM 981 reference material. The baseline after wash
was each under 0.0004 mV. Relative analytical precision of
measurements by MC-ICP-MS are better than 0.005% (RSD)
for 206Pb/207Pb and 208Pb/206Pb, and better than 0.01% for
206Pb/204Pb, 207Pb/204Pb and 208Pb/204Pb (
cf.
Table 3).
3. Results
3.1 Chemical composition – the alloy design
The ICP-MS analysis shows that the amulets are made of tin
bronze that always contained at least 2% lead (Table 2). The
alloy design was strongly connected to typology. Figure 4
shows the chemical profles of the typological groups
according to the main alloying components (except copper)
and the minor and trace elements. The chemical composition
of the four-spoked wheels and the materials used to make
them are quite diverse; the chemical composition of the
eight-spoked wheels and the rings is largely homogeneous.
The small variations in the trace elements could be a result
of the diferent origins of the copper in the alloys (no data on
the origin of the copper is available). One signifcant feature
of the eight-spoked wheels is the large amount of lead in the
alloy, usually between 20% and 30%. A similar lead content
was observed in the rings found with the coin hoards; one
ring from Libčice contained 28% lead, the other ring 35%.
Another feature that clearly distinguishes the eight-spoked
wheels from the four-spoked wheels is the high antimony
content (4–8%) in the alloy, and higher readings of arsenic
(around 0.5%) (Figure 5). Where the amount of antimony is
higher, the tin content decreases proportionally.
Lead-antimony bronzes are not rare in prehistory (Frána
et al.
, 2009; Schwab, 2011). Higher amounts of antimony
Table 3.
Lead isotope data for the wheel amulets and rings with a rhombic section. Data precision (MC-ICP-MS) is better than 0.01% for ratios with
206
Pb
in the denominator and better than 0.03% with
204
Pb in the denominator.
Id.Inv. numberType of amulet
207
Pb/
206
Pb
208
Pb/
206
Pb
206
Pb/
204
Pb
207
Pb/
204
Pb
208
Pb/
204
Pb
1
ZAV14-ray0.83762.084218.71115.672
38.998
2ZAV24-ray0.83782.084718.70715.67339.000
3
ZAV54-ray0.85312.1005
18.364
15.66738.573
4
ZAV64-ray0.83462.067218.77915.67438.821
5
detekt.4-ray0.83732.072118.712
15.668
38.773
6
ZAV84-ray0.83772.082018.71215.67638.957
72/20012-22a4-ray0.84582.082418.467
15.61938.456
8
2/2012-22c4-ray0.84112.077218.57715.624
38.588
9
A331624-ray0.83772.082918.70815.671
38.966
10A330384-ray0.83802.082318.70215.670
38.943
11
A33041-014-ray0.83782.082818.70815.673
38.964
12ZAV76-ray0.83722.082818.72215.674
38.995
13
ZAV38-ray0.83772.084518.71115.67539.003
14
ZAV48-ray0.83822.084918.70215.676
38.991
15
MĚ 177.9168-ray0.84782.084218.40515.60438.360
16
SH 0577988-ray0.83952.084718.67515.67738.932
172/2012-18g8-ray0.84102.086618.630
15.669
38.873
18A33164
8-ray0.83922.084218.673
15.66938.919
19
A33041-028-ray0.83862.073018.676
15.661
38.714
20HRZ 0198-ray0.83792.083218.69215.662
38.938
21
LIB1ring
0.83792.083118.71115.67738.975
22LIB2
ring
0.83782.083018.71315.67838.980
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Alžběta Danielisová, Daniel Bursák, Ladislav Strnad, Jakub Trubač, Hana Čižmářová, David Daněček, Kamil Smíšek: Rituals, Hoards and Travellers?
Archaeometry of the Iron Age Bronze Wheel Amulets
39
together with other characteristic trace elements (As, Ag,
sometimes Ni) is attributed to tetrahedrites (commonly
referred to as
fahlores
), a high-impurity copper used widely
from the beginning of the Bronze Age (Frána
et al.
, 1997;
2009; Niederschlag
et al.
, 2003; Lutz and Schwab, 2014a;
Schwab, 2014b; Nørgaard
et al.
, 2019). In the Czech lands,
however, this copper becomes scarce after the early Bronze
Age (Frána
et al.
, 1997; 2009).
An almost identical case to that described above is the
oppidum of Manching (Figure 3b), where rings of the same
shape and dimensions were part of a closure mechanism on
a container holding a famous hoard of gold coins discovered
in the 1990s (Zieghaus, 2013). The analytical values of the
major and trace elements were normalized to 100%, but the
proportions of the individual alloy components are basically
the same as those in the Libčice hoard. In Bavaria, the
appearance of an alloy where antimony appears to replace tin
is recorded from LT C2 (
i.e.
2
nd
century BC) onwards. The
presence of antimony as a regular admixture in late La Tène
alloys has been observed in numerous types of objects: wheel
amulets, belt fttings, ring beads, mirrors, and small fgural
works of art (Schwab, 2014b). Further west, the antimony
was frequently present in bronze-cast coins, the potins
(Burkhardt
et al.
, 1994; Haselgrove, 1999; Schwab, 2014b)
which circulated widely in Gaul, Belgium, and Britain. It is
interesting that in Bohemia and Moravia this alloy has so
far been detected only in amulets and rings which served a
particular function.
The eight-spoked amulet from Měrovice (MĚ 177.916),
found using a metal detector, was exceptional in being
almost completely made of lead (91%), plus an admixture
of antimony (ca. 7%). Such an alloy is highly unusual,
although lead amulets are reported from Germany (Schwab,
2014b). Lead is a soft metal, so antimony could improve
Figure 4.
Variability plots of the chemical profles of the minor and
trace elements of the individual types of amulet/ring. The fgure shows
comparatively larger heterogeneity in the case of four-spoked wheels
compared to the uniform designs of the eight-spoked wheels and rings with
a rhombic section. Values log-normalized, given in %.
Figure 5.
Diferences in the alloy composition of the four-spoked and
eight-spoked wheel amulets, showing the use of
fahlore
copper for the
fabrication of the latter. Rings with a rhombic section were made from the
same material, while the (possibly) Hallstatt period amulets from Závist
have the same composition as the four-spoked amulets.
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Archaeometry of the Iron Age Bronze Wheel Amulets
40
the mechanical properties, or give an item a more silver-
like appearance, but the precise reasons for alloying
lead with antimony are unknown. The Měrovice case
suggests that antimony could have been added to the alloy
as a standalone component and not as part of the
fahlore
.
Antimony is a grey metalloid and ores are recognizable by
their silvery appearance. Antimony usually forms its own
minerals (
e.g.
stibnite or pyrargyrite) or can be bound in,
for example, an arsenopyrite and/or tetrahedrite structure
(
e.g.
Andráš
et al.
, 2010). The processing of antimonite
ores was not demanding from the technological point of
view as its melting point is 630.6°C (stibnite, the most
typical antimony sulphide, has a melting point of 546°C).
Antimony mineralization and deposits across central Europe
(
cf.
Figure 2) include western Slovakia and the Low Tatra
mountains (Andráš
et al.
, 2010), the Rhineland (Wagner
and Schneider, 2002), the eastern Alps, and a signifcant
occurrence in the Massif Central (Négrel
et al.
, 2019). Other
minor occurrences include the Erzgebirge area, the central
part of the Bohemian Massif, and throughout the Alps.
Antimony can also be a by-product of copper and silver
mining and non-placer gold exploitation. Antimony (Sb-
Au mineralization) was intensively mined near Krásná
Hora nad Vltavou in central Bohemia until 1991 (Němec
and Zachariáš, 2018). An elite La Tène settlement in the
surrounding area included fnds of bronze objects (including
a four-spoked wheel) containing large amounts of antimony
(Bursák
et al.
, forthcoming). It is highly probable that these
objects were manufactured on site using local raw materials.
Knowledge of the occupation of this region could be key to
discovering more about the history of the use of antimonite
in late La Tène metallurgy.
Antimony-lead alloys are also typical in commercial
applications in modern times. It is used as the cast metal for
grids and terminals in lead-acid storage batteries, in which
the antimony content can reach 8%, with about 0.25%
tin and small amounts of arsenic, copper, and silver. The
Měrovice sample trace element readings are 0.1% Cu, 0.18%
Zn, 0.5% As, and 0.3% Sn, so a modern origin (despite its
authentic appearance) is plausible and the interpretation
must be treated with caution. Lead isotopic ratios plot this
object as an outlier, but within the linear distribution of other
samples and close to the isotopic signature of amulets from
Wallendorf (see 3.2, Figure 6).
All the other samples with a signifcant amount of antimony
are typical of
fahlores
. Apart from typical deposits of fahlore
coppers from the Alpine area and Slovakian Ore Mountains
(Nørgaard
et al.
, 2019), several tetrahedrite samples were
analysed from the Příbram area in central Bohemia (Frána
et al.
, 2009). This area also bears evidence of late La Tène
occupation with tentative attempts to link it to metallurgical
activities (Waldhauser
et al.
, 2010).
3.2 Lead isotopes: Provenance
The high lead content in the alloys means each deposit-
oriented investigation can only indicate the origin of the
added lead. The lead content obscures the Pb isotope
signature of the copper in the alloy and thus only the source
of the galena can be traced. In the case of recycling, that is,
the addition of another lead source, a mixture of the lead
added to the new alloy is produced. Both phenomena can be
observed in this assemblage (Figure 6).
Unfortunately, a solid corpus of comparative data for the
Iron Age is still lacking. Questions of provenance are very
Figure 6.
Lead isotopic ratios of the amulets with analysed analogies from Germany (after Schwab, 2014b). The data show the homogeneity of the lead in
the eight-spoked wheels compared to the four-spoked wheels which visibly scatter along the line below, which suggests a mixing of sources within diferent
deposits.
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Archaeometry of the Iron Age Bronze Wheel Amulets
41
Figure 7.
Lead isotopic ratios of the
amulets projected against known deposits
in Germany, Bohemia, Spain, and the Alps.
The values do not show an exact match
with any of the deposits, but rather suggest
a mixing of the Spanish lead with other
sources in the case of the eight-spoked
wheels, some of the four-spoked wheels,
and both of the rings from Libčice. The
four-spoked wheels are on the mixing line
below and suggest local sources, possibly
from the German Mittelgebirge area and the
Erzgebirge. Background data from: Bielicki
and Tischendorf, 1991; Bode, 2008; Brauns,
1995; Durali-Müller, 2005; Krahn and
Baumann, 1996; Lehman, 2011; Leveque
and Haack, 1993; Niederschlag
et al.
, 2003;
Durali-Müller
et al.
, 2007; Tischendorf
et
al.
, 1992; Zwicker
et al.
, 1991; Legierski
and Vaněček, 1967; Cattin
et al.
, 2011;
Pernicka
et al.
, 2016; Höppner
et al.
, 2005;
Artioli
et al.
, 2016; OXALID; Arribas and
Tosdal, 1994; Domerque
et al.
, 2012; Hunt-
Ortiz, 2003; Klein
et al.
, 2007; Klein
et al.
,
2009; Marcoux
et al.
, 1992; Stos-Gale
et al.
,
1995; Santos Zalduegui
et al.
, 2004; Tornos
and Chiaradia, 2004; Trincherini
et al.
, 2001;
Trincherini
et al.
, 2009; Velasco
et al.
, 1996.
difcult to answer as large mining areas in Europe, such as
Mitterberg, had already served their time and were replaced
by numerous smaller areas, whose importance for the Iron
Age is yet to be adequately assessed (Schwab, 2014b).
Because the amulets were found at settlements with proven
connections with other regions, such as Spain, and because
of the availability of existing research (
cf.
Danielisová
et al.
,
2018b; Schwab, 2014b), comparison was made with known
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Archaeometry of the Iron Age Bronze Wheel Amulets
42
deposits in the Czech Republic, the German Mittelgebirge
zone (central and southern Germany), the Alps, and Iberia.
From the distribution of the lead isotope ratios, we can
make the following observations:
1) The Pb ratios of eight-spoked wheels and rings with
a rhombic section are very homogeneous and confrm
the results of the chemical composition analysis. Both
of the amulets from Závist, dated to the Hallstatt period
(ZAV7, ZAV8) plot in this group, which suggests a
later dating. The four-spoked wheels scatter along the
line below the frst group, which suggests a mixing of
sources within diferent deposits (Figure 6).
2) The Pb ratios are also quite consistent with the origin
of the amulets. The eight-spoked wheels from Závist,
Staré Hradisko and Třísov have similar ratios to
the amulets from Martberg (Schwab, 2014b). This
suggests a super-regional system which has already
been postulated for the late Iron Age supply of metal
to the oppida (Danielisová
et al.
, 2018b). The four-
spoked wheels plot within the trend of the amulets
from Wallendorf, for which a mixing of local (
i.e.
German or Bohemian) sources of lead has been
suggested (Schwab, 2014b). The Variscan deposits
in the Rhineland, German Mittelgebirge zone or the
Erzgebirge (which connect the German and Bohemian
objects) can also be considered.
3) The eight-spoked wheels do not greatly overlap any
of the predicted deposits (Figure 7). The data show
that they are closest to the deposits in southeast Spain
(Sierra Cartagena, Murcia, Alméria), but not close
enough for 100% certainty. The same observation was
made with the amulets from Martberg, where a mix of
various Spanish lead sources was suggested (Schwab,
2014b). The Pb ratios of the four-spoked wheels, on
the other hand, do not seem to be a result of mixing
Spanish lead with local geologically older deposits as
was suggested for Germany (Schwab, 2014b).
4. Discussion
The use of a high-impurity copper for the production of
particular objects, in this case eight-spoked wheel amulets
and rings with a rhombic section, may or may not have been
a result of requirements for a specifc alloy design. It has
been suggested that the alloy was designed for the resulting
colour: leaded bronze is usually a golden-yellowish colour
(Devogelaere, 2017); adding antimony would yield a more
silver-like appearance (Schwab, 2014a).
Fahlore
copper
with arsenic and antimony has similar properties to tin-rich
bronzes: arsenic and antimony can replace part of the tin in
the δ eutectoid or form their own intermetallic phases such as
Cu
4
Sb and Cu
3
As. Experiments have shown that the colour
spectrum of these alloys is red-brown to gold depending on
the antimony and tin content, but that the surfaces are silver-
coloured in all cases as a result of inverse ingot segregation
after casting (Schwab, 2014b). The alloy composition
does not have ideal mechanical properties (Northover,
2004), which is perhaps why it was used only for smaller
decorative objects such as rings, belts, beads and mirrors,
and the amulets (Schwab, 2014a). Schwab (2014a) has also
suggested that antimony replaced tin in the more expensive
alloys – used for mirrors and bronze potin coins – to produce
an imitation of silver or a high-tin bronze called
speculum
.
It is yet to be established whether the
fahlore
copper and
antimonite were used because of a shortage of tin caused by
the repeated recycling of objects, a scarcity of raw materials
caused by disruption to the supply, as has been suggested
for Bavaria (Schwab, 2014a), or because minerals were
available which gave the alloys the desired visual properties.
The items from Bohemia show that antimony did not replace
tin entirely, but formed another component of the alloy.
Evidence of antimony in copper-free objects (Měrovice)
and in the area bearing antimony deposits (the region
around Krásná Hora nad Vltavou) may also suggest the use
of antimony minerals as standalone components, although
evidence of the use of
fahlores
also exists.
The common occurrence of antimony bronzes at Manching
(Schwab, 2014a), where the antimony content reaches as
high as 10%, suggests that it is an intentional alloy. The use
of fahlores in Bavaria is seen as evidence of the widespread
smelting of local ores from deposits in the Alps and the
German Mittelgebirge zone as
fahlores
are not observed in
the analysis of Mediterranean alloys from the same period
(Schwab, 2014b). However, in Bohemia,
fahlores
were not
used past the Bronze Age (Niederschlag
et al.
, 2003; Frána
et al.
, 1997; 2009; Danielisová
et al.
, in print). For this
reason, it becomes signifcant that (with exceptions,
cf.
3.1)
no objects in Bohemia apart from the eight-spoked wheels
and the rings found with the coin hoards were made using
fahlores
. This naturally raises the question as to whether this
phenomenon is a result of deliberate alloying reserved for
particular objects or is a matter of provenance. The latter
would lead us to expect the movement of amulets and rings
(bound to their owners or in the form of raw material) with
the
fahlore
signature from Bavaria to sites in Bohemia and
Moravia. Local production would thus become pointless,
but the great spread of amulets across diferent social groups
(oppida and the countryside) would suggest either a high
level of mobility or the need to reconsider the possibility
of local production. When comparing mutual ratios of the
selected elements (Figure 8), which show two diferent rates
of depletion of As and Sb relative to Ag, it is clear that it is
not the typology but the site that is consistent with the pattern
of trace elements. This suggests that the amulets were not
produced at a single location, but that at each diferent site the
alloy design particular to each product was always maintained.
It may also suggest that each major settlement had its own
network of contacts who brought amulets in from particular
production sites (the clearest division is that between Závist
and Třísov oppida). Site specifcity also appears distinctive
with respect to Pb isotope ratios (Figure 6).
The rings bearing a rhombic section are similar to the
eight-spoked amulets in both chemical composition and Pb
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Archaeometry of the Iron Age Bronze Wheel Amulets
43
isotopes (Figure 3b). Such rings were often used as closure
systems on organic containers holding coin hoards. A similar
bronze ring was found in a depot at Lauterach in the Vorarlberg
(Pauli, 1991) and two bronze rings are also reported in the
context of the Starý Kolín coin hoard in Bohemia (Militký,
2018). Regarding provenance, it may be signifcant that coins
found in the Libčice hoard were of Thuringian and Bavarian
origin, which could explain the use of
fahlore
copper to make
the closure rings. A similar explanation can be suggested in
the case of Lauterach, not far from Bavaria, in an area of
Alpine deposits that also contained
fahlores
. The Starý Kolín
hoard on the other hand contained only coins of local,
i.e.
Boian, origin. The composition of the bronze rings from
Lauterach and Starý Kolín is unknown. The numerous rings
with a rhombic section from Manching (van Endert, 1991)
and Staré Hradisko (SH 136) may suggest that the rings were
produced at the oppida and were a typical part of the local
material culture. Those found with the coin hoards are the
only rings whose chemical composition was analysed. The
fact that exactly the same alloy was used for the rings and the
amulets also suggests that not only the type and shape of an
object but also the processes used in its manufacture played a
signifcant role in the ritual life of the late Iron Age.
5. Conclusion
Spoked-wheel amulets are an interesting aspect of the
material culture of the middle and especially the late La
Tène period. They were used as personal jewellery, possibly
with a specifc function as a symbol of the Sun. There
were various designs, but two basic types prevailed: four-
spoked wheels (with numerous sub-variations) and eight-
spoked wheels (with few or no variations). It was the latter
group that proved interesting with respect to archaeometric
analysis and this was because of their specifc alloy design.
The elevated concentrations of arsenic, silver and especially
antimony led to the conclusion that they were made using
fahlore
copper. The use of
fahlores
is almost unknown in
Iron Age Bohemia and Moravia but common in Germany
(the oppida of Manching and Martberg specifcally), where
it was used for amulets and other items, perhaps where a
silvery appearance was required. Interestingly, the only
objects for which the use of
fahlore
copper was detected
in Bohemia were these particular types of amulet. More
interesting still was the discovery of the same composition
in the bronze rings that served as a closing mechanism for
sacks containing coin hoards. This all naturally gave rise
to questions about the provenance and origin of this alloy
design, which according to the lead isotopes is also highly
homogeneous. The lead used in the eight-spoked wheels and
the closure rings has a common source. It was possibly a
mixture of Spanish lead brought to the Transalpine areas as
part of the extensive trade in metals which probably involved
most of the oppida and other major sites in central Europe
(
cf.
Danielisová
et al.
, 2018b; Schwab, 2014b).
The eight-spoked wheels and the rings with a rhombic
section may be part of a well-organized production system
as they feature Spanish lead but were made locally using
fahlore
copper (and perhaps antimonite). The reasons
Figure 8.
The common denominator (Ag) of the x-axis and y-axis gives rise to a dual linear trajectory showing two trends in the chemical composition.
These trends are dependent not on the type of amulet but on the site. This suggests that individual settlements might have been involved in producing their
own amulets using diferent kinds of copper but following the required alloy design. The two linear trajectories could also suggest binary mixing of (yet)
unknown end-members.
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Alžběta Danielisová, Daniel Bursák, Ladislav Strnad, Jakub Trubač, Hana Čižmářová, David Daněček, Kamil Smíšek: Rituals, Hoards and Travellers?
Archaeometry of the Iron Age Bronze Wheel Amulets
44
behind the choice of materials might have been: (a) purely
practical (the availability of raw materials at a specifc
location); (b) aesthetic (the silvery appearance of the alloy);
(c) technological (better workability); or even (d) symbolic
(the exact number and ratios of the individual components).
We can create a picture of the wearers of these amulets,
who travelled from the oppida in the western part of
central Europe where Spanish lead and
fahlore
copper
were routinely processed. We can also draw a picture of the
special materials being imported to the places of production
based on the particular demands of the alloy design. Last,
but not least, we can envision locally exploited
fahlores
and antimonites being processed. All three hypotheses are
equally plausible but (perhaps excepting the last of the three)
lack direct supportive evidence.
Unlike the eight-spoked wheel amulets, the four-spoked
wheels show great diversity in their chemical composition
and lead isotopes, and these are mostly compatible with their
places of origin, thus refecting local production. It appears
that no particular rules were followed when producing these
objects. It is perhaps safe to say that unlike the eight-spoked
wheels, the four-spoked wheels, which are similar in their
symbolism but more “free-hand” in their execution, were a
true part of the late La Tène “pop culture”.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Czech Science Foundation
[project: “Mobility of materials and life cycles of artefacts:
archaeometry of metals and glass of the La Tène and Early
Roman period”; project number: 18-20096S].
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