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121
X/2/2019
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
Skołoszów 16 – A Spatial Arrangement of the Eneolithic Settlement of the
Funnel Beaker Culture in the Rzeszów Foothills (South-Eastern Poland) in
the Light of Previous Excavations and Geophysical Survey
Dariusz Król
a*
, Jakub Niebieszczański
b
a
Institute of Archaeology of the Rzeszów University, Moniuszki 10 Street, 35-015 Rzeszów, Poland
b
Faculty of Archaeology Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 7 Street, 61-614 Poznań, Poland
1. Introduction
In the last decade, much progress has been made in
studies on the settlement patterns of the Eneolithic Funnel
Beaker culture (hereinafter FBC) in the eastern part of the
Rzeszów Foothills in south-eastern Poland. During rescue
archaeological investigations preceding the construction of
the A4 highway, non-megalithic long barrows (Król
et al.
,
2014) and spatially-diverse stable settlements – previously
unknown in this area – were excavated (
e.g.
Rybicka
et al.
,
2014; 2016; Dębiec
et al.
, 2015; Sznajdrowska, 2016).
These results shed new light on FBC settlement patterns in
south-eastern Poland (
cf.
Czopek and Kadrow, 1987; Zych,
2008; Nowak, 2009). They then also became a starting point
to initiate detailed micro-regional studies, which led to the
identifcation and/or verifcation of several dozens of further
sites of this cultural phenomenon (
e.g.
Rogoziński, 2014;
Rybicka, 2016; Sieradzka and Głowacz, 2017; Król, 2017;
2018). One of the most signifcant achievements of these
investigations was the identifcation of a new settlement in
Skołoszów 16 – one of the largest FBC sites located south
of the upper Vistula (
cf.
Rybicka
et al.
, 2014; Król, 2017;
2018). This settlement was discovered in 2016 during a
surface survey mission. The dispersion of sherds within an
area of several hectares indicates the possibility of intense
habitation in this place by FBC people (Król, 2017;
cf.
Król, 2018). In order to verify this hypothesis, as well as
determine the extent, spatial arrangement and chronology
of the settlement, excavation and non-invasive geophysical
surveys were carried out. Magnetic prospection had
already showed its potential in investigating other
Eneolithic sites in the close-by area of Skołoszów 7, where
numerous funeral features were revealed (Cwaliński
et al.
,
2018). Therefore, it was decided to use this method to
investigate Skołoszów 16, which was comprised of the
same geological formation of loess sediments, providing a
clear magnetic background.
Volume X ● Issue 2/2019 ● Pages 121–128
*Corresponding author. E-mail: kroldrk@gmail.com
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 2
nd
January 2019
Accepted: 25
th
November 2019
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.24916/iansa.2019.2.2
Key words:
Eneolithic
Funnel Beaker culture
non-invasive survey
geomagnetic
excavations
spatial arrangement
ABSTRACT
In recent years, numerous sites of the Eneolithic Funnel Beaker culture (FBC) have been identifed in
the Rzeszów Foothills (south-eastern Poland). Among them, a large settlement in Skołoszów 16 seems
to be particularly signifcant due to its internal characteristics. In order to determine its extent, spatial
arrangement and chronology, an interdisciplinary investigation (including excavations and a non-
invasive geophysical survey) was carried out in 2017–2018. As a consequence of two seasons of feld
work campaigns, we have recognized numerous morphologically diverse features (mainly pits) and the
settlement (cultural) layer. Excavations documented the intense usage of the settlement’s space which
encouraged carrying out a geophysical survey over the wider area of the site. The magnetic anomaly
distribution refects many presumable anthropogenic features. Several particular concentrations of
features visible on the magnetometry image seem to be related with the FBC, thus delimiting the spatial
extent of the site. Based on the geophysical picture, it was possible to estimate that the site measured
at least 65×40 m, while the excavations conducted revealed that the settlement was comprised of
numerous pits and one settlement layer.
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Dariusz Król, Jakub Niebieszczański: Skołoszów 16 – A Spatial Arrangement of the Eneolithic Settlement of the Funnel Beaker Culture in the Rzeszów Foothills
(South-Eastern Poland) in the Light of Previous Excavations and Geophysical Survey
122
2. Location of settlement
The settlement in Skołoszów 16 is located in the north-
eastern region of the Rzeszów Foothills (Figure 1) on a
loess zone in the south-eastern part of the Sandomierz Basin
(Kondracki, 1988). It is situated on a slightly fattened small
hill, on the right bank of the valley of the Łęg Rokietnicki
River, about 380 m away from its present-day riverbed and
Figure 1.
Distribution of the FBC in the Rzeszów Foothills. a – Skołoszów 16 settlement; b – others sites in the studied area; c – others sites in the
neighbouring areas.
0 5 km
Figure 2.
Skołoszów 16, Subcarpathian voivodeship. A 3D model of the settlement location. Red spot – settlement; blue spots – non-outfowing ponds.
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Dariusz Król, Jakub Niebieszczański: Skołoszów 16 – A Spatial Arrangement of the Eneolithic Settlement of the Funnel Beaker Culture in the Rzeszów Foothills
(South-Eastern Poland) in the Light of Previous Excavations and Geophysical Survey
123
approx. 13 m above its bottom. In its nearest surroundings,
there are also two non-outfowing ponds (Figure 2). This
topographic-hydrological confguration of the environment
is typical of this part of the Rzeszów Foothills. These
conditions favoured the development of the FBC settlement
network in south-eastern Poland (
cf.
Kruk, 1973; 1980; Kruk
et al.
, 1996). Within a radius of 5 km from the site, up to
30 functionally diverse FBC sites, including one cemetery
with two non-megalithic long barrows, have been registered
(Król
et al.
, 2014; Król, 2017; 2018, Cwaliński
et al.
, 2018).
3. Previous excavations
An archaeological excavation at the new FBC site in
Skołoszów 16 was carried out during two feldwork seasons
in 2017 and 2018. The frst season aimed to check whether
the settlement identifed during the surface survey mission
could be prospective for excavation and to examine its
state of preservation. To this end, preliminary excavations
were realized and provided a number of valuable items of
information, which are presented below.
As a consequence of the excavation of two small
trenches with a total surface of 32 m
2
, we have recognized
8 diverse features and a settlement layer of 0.4 m thickness
(Figure 3). In the context of these features, as well as the
cultural layer we have identifed numerous FBC sherd and
fint assemblages (
cf.
Król, 2018). The presence of relatively
well-preserved anthropogenic relics and particularly distinct
clustered features (Figure 3) has confrmed the scientifc
importance of this site and justifed the second season of
the excavation. This excavation carried out in an area of ca.
100 m
2
resulted in the identifcation of another 17 diverse
features, especially in the western sector (Figure 3). As in
the case of the preliminary excavations in 2017, numerous
artefacts relating to FBC were identifed. Sherds that imitate
Figure 3.
Skołoszów 16, Subcarpathian voivodeship. The distribution of excavated FBC features: a – trapezoidal pits; b – tubular pits, c – rectangular pits,
d – plausible hearth; e – unknown pits; f – postholes; g – area excavated in 2017; h – area excavated in 2018.
0 10 cm
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Dariusz Król, Jakub Niebieszczański: Skołoszów 16 – A Spatial Arrangement of the Eneolithic Settlement of the Funnel Beaker Culture in the Rzeszów Foothills
(South-Eastern Poland) in the Light of Previous Excavations and Geophysical Survey
124
the Tripolye culture (hereinafter TC) technology have also
been found. These and the typical FBC fnds are subject of a
separate study.
The excavation revealed a total of 25 morphologically and
functionally diverse anthropogenic features, among which
the most numerous group might be categorized as storage
and/or rubbish pits – features 1–14 and 19–23 (Table 1). In
fact, all these pits were conspicuous as being oval in plan and
they difered more in size from 0.94 m to 2.87 m in diameter
(Table 1). More crucial diferences were visible in the case of
their cross-section and type of backfll. During excavations in
Skołoszów 16, we distinguished mainly trapezoidal and tubular-
shaped pits (Figure 3; Table 1). The frst of these were slightly
deeper and stratifed, while the second had usually a uniform
backfll (Table 1). Most of these pits were clustered very densely
below the cultural layer and some of them overlapped each
other (
e.g.
features 5 → 12). However, the deepest and multi-
stratifed trapezoidal pit 19, as well as pit 20 containing peculiar
burnt layers, were situated quite independently of this cluster
(Figure 3). Another category within the scope of the examined
space were the poorly preserved postholes and the one feature
which can be carefully interpreted as a hearth located to the
south of pits 11 and 14 (Figure 3). Presumably, all these latter-
mentioned features might be seen as the remains of a dwelling
and its interior.
The spatial arrangement of the features recognized
seems interesting and may suggest some preferences as
to the functioning and development of the settlement. The
occurrence of the cluster of trapezoidal and tubular-shaped
pits probably do not indicate the short-term inhabitation of
this site, and its more complex structure may be confrmed
by the intersections of older pits by younger ones (Figure 3).
These stratigraphic relationships demonstrate that some
pits were not contemporaneous. However, it is intractable
to determine their detailed temporal relationships due to
the mainly unspecifc sherds and lack of a large set of AMS
radiocarbon dating. Thus far, only two absolute indicators
have been obtained from the context of pits 5 (which
disturbed the pit 13) and 6 (Figure 4). Both of these dates
Poz-100857 4765±35 and Poz-100856 4680±35 suggest
that the settlement was inhabited within a period of ca.
3650–3350 BC (
cf.
Król, 2018).
Only a small section of the settlement was examined and
it would be difcult to expect much in the way of general
Table 1.
Skołoszów 16. Basic specifcation of features.
Feature no.Feature typeCross-sectionTop size (m)Depth (m)
Backfll
1
pittubular1.22×1.140.32uniform
2
pittubular1.42×1.120.30uniform
3pitrectangular1.88×1.300.35uniform
4pittrapezoidalunknown*0.42uniform
5pittrapezoidal2.08×1.050.68stratifed
6pittubular1.47×1.450.42uniform
7pittubular1.58×1.210.40uniform
8pittrapezoidalunknown*0.50uniform
9pittubular2.06×1.950.48uniform
9Apittubularunknown*0.42uniform
10
pittrapezoidal1.45×1.260.41uniform
11
pittubular1.75×1.590.64uniform
12
pittrapezoidal2.87×2.260.76stratifed
13pittrapezoidal1.19×1.350.35uniform
14pittubular2.36×2.070.65uniform
15postholeirregural0.48×0.460.25uniform
16postholeirregular0.46×0.420.22uniform
17unknownunknown0.88×0.640.15uniform
18hearthbasin1.20×0.810.12uniform
19pittrapezoidal1.03×0.951.05stratifed
20
pittubular3.23×?*0.75stratifed
21
pittubular2.43×?* 0.72uniform
22
pittrapezoidal0.94×?*0.80stratifed
23pitrectangular1.52×?*0.40uniform
24postholeirregular0.36×0.340.12uniform
* – not fully explored features
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Dariusz Król, Jakub Niebieszczański: Skołoszów 16 – A Spatial Arrangement of the Eneolithic Settlement of the Funnel Beaker Culture in the Rzeszów Foothills
(South-Eastern Poland) in the Light of Previous Excavations and Geophysical Survey
125
conclusions regarding the spatial arrangement, range and
detailed dynamics of its inhabitation based on these limited
data. Despite the results of the excavations, it is open to
question whether the examined cluster of pits were part of a
much larger concentration of features and if there were other
clusters within the settlement. This seems justifed given the
current research experience from the loess area of the eastern
part of the Rzeszów Foothills. Such diferent pit groups have
been identifed, for instance, in Pawłosiów 52 (Rybicka
et al.
,
2014) and Mirocin 27 (Sznajdrowska, 2016). Undoubtedly,
in order to realistically estimate the space of the settlement
in Skołoszów 16, large-scale excavations should be carried
out. However, preceding these future investigations, we have
decided to conduct a geophysical survey in order to locate
the most suitable areas for excavations as well as to provide
a spatial view of the distribution of archaeological features.
4. Geophysical survey
The main aim of the non-invasive research was to investigate
the Skołoszów 16 area in order to estimate the potential
settlement space of the FBC societies. Due to the indications
given by the surface survey conducted in 2016 it was expected
to encounter prehistoric remains in the form of pits: this was,
moreover, supported by the results of the excavation mission
in 2017 and 2018 in the northern part of the site (Król, 2017;
2018). In late 2018, a magnetic prospection was planned for
the entire summit and slopes of the small hill (Figure 2),
which according to the survey was inhabited by the FBC
during Eneolithic times.
The choice of the method was driven by the results that
were efectively achieved in the nearby site of Skołoszów
7 in 2016 (Cwaliński
et al.
, 2018). A series of pits, burials,
as well as other features, were documented by means of
magnetometry thanks to the method-friendly environment,
namely the loess coverage of the area. In such good
geological circumstances, the archaeological features,
which are abundant in the organic material, as well as its
diferentiated lithological structure, are easily discernible in
the geophysical picture (Müller
et al.
, 2017). It was therefore
decided to conduct the research based on the same method
that was applied in the area of Skołoszów 16 in order to
discover the spatial distribution of FBC features, mainly pits,
as they were most abundant during the excavations in 2017
and 2018.
4.1 Methods
In order to reveal the spatial organization of the FBC
settlement, a magnetic method was used. Equipment used
during the prospection was the fuxgate magnetometer
Bartington Grad601 with one sensor containing two probes
located at a distance of a meter from each other. This
particular type of magnetometer measures the disturbances
in the Earth’s magnetic feld and provides a measurement of
the earth’s vertical magnetic gradient. The measured values
are expressed in nanoTeslas (nT/m), while the precision of
probing did not exceed 0,1 nT/m.
In the area of Skołoszów 16, a total number of 36 prospection
grids were measured, which gave an area of more than
3 ha. Each grid comprised a square of side 30 m and the
measurement transects were separated by a meter interval
as the area of prospection was relatively large. Each transect
comprised 120 measurements, thus each grid of 30×30 m
consisted of 3600 points with attached nT/m values.
It should be mentioned that the feld in which the survey
was undertaken consisted of a ploughed cultivated surface,
which resulted in some disturbances in the magnetic map
interpretation (ploughing ridges,
etc.
). Nevertheless, the
homogenous geological subsurface composition, comprised
of loess deposits, gave sufcient clearance from any other
disturbances, thus allowing a high resolution in the resulting
magnetic map.
The magnetic measurements were visualized in GeoPlot
and ArcGIS software, using various interpolation models
(such as TopoToRaster, Nearest Neighbourhood or Kriging)
to obtain the best visual appearance. It was decided to
apply the Nearest Neighbourhood method ofered by the
interpolation toolbox in ArcInfo. The fnal magnetic view of
the site was composed of a raster grid of 0.2 m resolution
and displayed in several min/max value ranges in order to
aid interpretation of the spatial distribution of magnetic
anomalies. It was decided to base the interpretation on
the raster values clip from –10 to 10 nT/m, being the one
that provided the best quality of discernible anomalies in
this particular picture. Further compression of the range of
values resulted in representations of the feld’s ploughing
and obstruction in the visibility of archaeological features.
4.2. Results and discussion
The area of the Skołoszów site, in terms of magnetic
variability, can be described as relatively neutral – as there
were no major anomalies which could have obscured the
Figure 4.
Skołoszów 16, Subcarpathian voivodeship. Radiocarbon dates.
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Dariusz Król, Jakub Niebieszczański: Skołoszów 16 – A Spatial Arrangement of the Eneolithic Settlement of the Funnel Beaker Culture in the Rzeszów Foothills
(South-Eastern Poland) in the Light of Previous Excavations and Geophysical Survey
126
resulting imagery. The maximum registered value reached
70.5 nT/m and the lowest was –82 nT/m, while the mean
gradient oscillated around –1.89 nT/m.
The overall analysis of the surveyed area comprised
three main anomaly types, distinguished on the basis of
their magnetic properties, shapes and spatial distribution.
All of them were characterized by their inductive type of
magnetism, from which two are believed to be the remnants
of prehistoric human activity, while the remaining one is
connected with the local geological structures.
The frst group of anomalies (type I according to Figure 5)
are the elongated or circular passes of insignifcantly
higher magnetic properties. These structures are located
mostly in the south-western and north-eastern parts of the
surveyed area. These anomalies seem to draw various spatial
arrangements of lines of 1 to 3 m wide. Regarding their size
as well as their regular arrangement, their anthropogenic
origin has to be excluded from the interpretation as they
supposedly refect local geological subsurface units
(
cf.
Müller
et al.
, 2017). The genesis of such units could be
related to the underground channels of erosive transportation
during some earlier stages of landscape development or the
iron-rich inflls of depressions. The resulting lithological and
geochemical diferences can therefore be responsible for
their higher magnetic signal.
The second group of features recorded on the resulting
picture (type II according to Figures 5 and 6) are anomalies
characterized by both single pole signatures and the bipolar
orientation of relatively high and low magnetic felds. In total
83 features of this type were recorded within the research
area. Their spatial distribution does not show any regular
arrangement that would suggest them being indicative of
anthropogenic remains. Due to the very high and very low
magnetic signals, these features may refect the position
of items of metal waste related to agricultural activity.
However, one should be aware that such anomalies can be
assigned to metal artefacts from the later stages of prehistory,
Medieval or modern times. In fact, they could also be related
to military objects remaining from the First World War, as
local farmers have reported that even in recent years some
shrapnel and artillery shells have been collected by them
during agriculture work. Nearby the site of Skołoszów 16,
the battle of Radymno took place in 1915 and therefore it
should be considered that the discussed anomalies refect
Figure 5.
Skołoszów 16, Subcarpathian
voivodeship. Interpretation of the magnetic
prospection results. The types of anomalies
correspond to the typology described in the
text.
0 80 m
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Dariusz Król, Jakub Niebieszczański: Skołoszów 16 – A Spatial Arrangement of the Eneolithic Settlement of the Funnel Beaker Culture in the Rzeszów Foothills
(South-Eastern Poland) in the Light of Previous Excavations and Geophysical Survey
127
the aforementioned metal elements. Nevertheless, an
archaeological explanation can be drawn as well. During the
excavations in the northern part of the site, a part of a layer
made from burnt daub was encountered in the easternmost
part of the trench (Figure 3). Interestingly this feature
continues outside the trench on the magnetic map (Figures 5
and 6) as a bipolar anomaly (+3/–36 nT/m). It is therefore
not excluded that such forms of magnetic features can be
interpreted as archaeological features.
The last group (type III according to Figures 5 and 6)
consist of single-pole anomalies of relatively small increases
in the magnetic gradient (from 2 to 5 nT/m). Being the only
ones among the above-described features, these should be
considered as refections of archaeological remains such as
pits, ditches inflled with diferent lithological material, or
funeral features. Furthermore, the geological background
cover of loess seems to support the hypothesis of diferent
sedimentological and geochemical material represented on
the magnetometric plan. Identical structures, in terms of
shape, have been documented during magnetic prospection
in Skołoszów 7 (Cwaliński
et al.
, 2018), which were,
moreover, verifed during the excavations in 2018 and
interpreted as trapezoidal, tubular and rectangular-shaped
pits. In Skołoszów 16, a total number of 145 such anomalies
have been registered. The highest concentration of such
features was observed in the north, while two small separated
groups were also encountered in the southern part of the site
(Figures 5 and 6).
The frst grouping to the north lies in the area which
was excavated in 2017 and 2018 and therefore some
archaeologically-supported interpretations can be drawn.
Within the trenches a series of pits connected to the FBC
settlement activity were documented. As is shown by
the magnetic imagery, the archaeological trenches were
established on the very border of the concentration of pit-
like structures. If we were to consider this agglomeration
of anomalies as a refection of a FBC settlement, it would
have the dimensions of 65 m by 40 m (Figures 5 and 6).
However, one should be aware that the northern border
of this concentration was not revealed due to the terrain
conditions. Therefore, we should expect that this settlement
structure continues further to the north.
Figure 6.
Skołoszów 16, Subcarpathian
voivodeship. Close-up on the magnetic
imagery of the northern accumulation of
features of type III with superimposed
results of the excavations in 2017 and 2018.
0 20 m
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128
The other concentration, relatively smaller than the
northern grouping, was recorded in the south, where
12 pit-like anomalies were encountered on the magnetic
picture (Figure 5). Their sizes are similar to the ones in the
north and therefore they should also be considered as pits
of the FBC. There is also another similar small grouping
located more to the east, comprising 14 features (Figure 5).
5. Conclusions
The results of the interdisciplinary research confrmed
the presence of the remains of a large Eneolithic FBC
settlement at Skołoszów 16. Its area should be estimated at
no less than 3 ha and possibly even more than 4 ha. Most
importantly, these studies have highlighted the compelling
spatial arrangement of the settlement, in the northern part of
which a very extensive cluster of diverse pits was registered
(Figures 3, 5 and 6). It appears that only less than 20% of
the features included in it were identifed in the excavation
missions in 2017–2018. The rest were revealed by non-
invasive geophysical prospection in late 2018. The results
of the latter studies can be considered to be reliable. For
instance, there is a direct correlation of the absence of the
archaeological anomalies of type III within the excavation
trenches. Therefore, we can observe clear boundaries of the
magnetic structures adjacent to the trench borders (Figures 5
and 6). Especially intriguing in this matter is the burnt layer
of daub, recorded in pit 20. During the excavations in 2018,
it was decided to not expand the trench in order to reveal the
spatial boundary of this feature due to the weather conditions.
Therefore, on the magnetometric imagery we can observe
the continuation of this layer up towards the east (Figures 5
and 6).
Obviously, the picture of the FBC settlement in Skołoszów
16 generated by this interdisciplinary research does not
solve all the problems and does not allow us to answer
every question fully. This is primarily a static picture of the
Eneolithic FBC here, not a dynamic one. In order to make
it more dynamic, further research is needed to acquire a
statistically-signifcant pool of indicators of absolute and
relative chronology. In the end it has been noteworthy
in showing the potential of combining both excavations
and magnetic (or non-invasive in general) survey for the
investigation of such Eneolithic settlement areas. In the
example of Skołoszów 16, it was possible to support the
geophysical interpretations with archaeological information,
as well as to extrapolate the results of the excavations by the
way of magnetic imagery of the site.
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