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X/1/2019
InterdIscIplInarIa archaeologIca
natural scIences In archaeology
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
Daily Food Consumption in a Rural Roman Villa:
Excavations at Lički Ribnik, Croatia
Kelly Reed
a*
, Ivana Ožanić Roguljić
b
, Siniša Radović
c
, Tatjana Kolak
d
a
Oxford Martin School, University of Oxford, 34 Broad St, Oxford OX1 3BD, United Kingdom
b
Institute of Archaeology, Ljudevita Gaja 32, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
c
Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts, Zrinski trh 11, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia
d
Museum of Lika, Ivana Bana Karlovića 1, 53 000 Gospić, Croatia
1. Introduction
The country villa occupied a privileged place in the ideology
of the Roman elite, as shown by texts from Cato, Varro
and Columella, who emphasised the moral superiority of
farming. Landowning and agriculture were deeply rooted in
Roman traditions, symbolising their ancestral past, and was
considered an excellent and prestigious source of income
for Roman senators (Kehoe, 1997; Rosenstein, 2008).
Large volumes of work exist on Roman villas, aiming to
classify and make sense of the numerous variety of villas
excavated over the past two centuries (
e.g.
McKay, 1998;
Percival, 1976; Smith, 1997). A villa can mean diferent
things at diferent times, from the house of a farm, the house
and adjoining buildings within an enclosure, and the entire
estate including the buildings and the land, which all range in
size, architecture and function (Smith, 1997, p.11; Torrenato,
2001). The “villa system” is typically referred to as a villa
with both a
pars urbana
, for residential purposes, and a
pars rustica
, which was dedicated to agricultural production
(Marzano, 2007, p.125). The term ‘agriculture’ was also not
limited to the cultivation of crops and animal husbandry, but
to any activity connected to the land and its natural resources,
including the production of bricks, pottery, lime, timber and
metal (Marzano, 2015). As a result, villas are often considered
to be located in areas with agricultural potential, usually near
streams or rivers (
e.g.
Thomas, 1980, p.285; Oltean, Hanson,
2007). The villa would have therefore had its own complex
socioeconomic system, interlinked with the wider Roman
economy, where agriculture played a central role.
Much of the evidence to date on “villa systems” comes
from onsite plans and architectural fndings, literary sources,
as well as pottery and other material culture. In contrast
to this large body of data, few have explored the villa
Volume X ● Issue 1/2019 ● Pages 53–63
*Corresponding author. E-mail: kellyreed@hotmail.co.uk
ArtICLe InfO
Article history:
Received: 12
th
November 2018
Accepted: 6
th
May 2019
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.24916/iansa.2019.1.4
Key words:
Dalmatia
Lika
archaeobotany
zooarchaeology
Roman pottery
food
diet
ABStrACt
Large volumes of work exist on Roman villas; however, what the inhabitants ate on a daily basis at
these sites is frequently overlooked. Here we present archaeobotanical, zooarchaeological and pottery
evidence to explore aspects of daily consumption patterns within the rural villa of Lički Ribnik, Croatia.
The remains date from the second half of the 2
nd
to the frst half of the 3
rd
century AD and provide the
frst evidence of villa consumption in the Lika region. The discovery of broomcorn millet (
Panicum
miliaceum
) grains, domestic cattle (
Bos taurus
) and sheep (
Ovis aries
) bones suggest that they were
consumed at the site. Diferent pottery types and fabrics also suggest a range of dishes were cooked,
including the Roman dish
patina
. Although these conclusions are based on very limited data, the study
shows the importance of looking at environmental evidence in conjunction with other archaeological
material in order to explore local diet and economy in the Roman period.
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food system through the analyses of archaeobotanical and
zooarchaeological remains. Where examined, the evidence
has contributed meaningfully to the reconstruction of Roman
villa production, management and supply, the preparation
and consumption of foods, as well as exploring aspects of
group identity, social status and ritual/religious practices
(
e.g.
Crabtree, 1990; King, 2001; Šoštarić, Küster, 2001;
Olive, 2004; Padrós, Valenzuela Lamas, 2010; McCallum
et al.
, 2013; Árpád
et al.
, 2015).
In Dalmatia, over 200
villae rusticae
have been recognised
or excavated and around 350 in
regio X Venetia et Histria
(Matijašić, 1998). However, few have provided evidence on
diet and subsistence. Published deposits of archaeobotanical
and zooarchaeological remains dating to the Roman period
(1
st
–5
th
Century AD) in Croatia are still relatively rare. For
example, only 12 sites have published archaeobotanical
remains (see Reed, 2016 for summary; Essert
et al.
, 2018;
Reed, Leleković, 2019; Reed
et al.
, 2019) and only three of
these are from villa sites: the 3
rd
–4
th
century AD rural villa
at Danilo, Dalmatia (Šoštarić, 2003), the 1
st
–5
th
century AD
rural villa at Veli Brijun, Istria (Šoštarić, Küster, 2001), and
the 2
nd
–4
th
century AD urban villa of Osijek-Silos (Reed
et al.
, 2019). Faunal data are even more underrepresented
and only fve Roman period sites being published in
Croatia (Alvàs-Marion, 2001; Brajković, Paunović, 2001;
Campadelli, 2007; Miculinić, 2018; Šimić-Kanaet
et al.
,
2005; Šoštarić
et al.
, 2015). Of these, only two are from villa
sites: the 1
st
–2
nd
century rural estate of Crikvenica – Igralište,
Vinodol area (Miculinić, 2018) and the maritime villa,
villae
maritimae
, of Loron, Istria (Brajković, Paunović, 2001). This
paper therefore presents the frst evidence of Roman rural
villa consumption in the Lika region of Dalmatia, examining
the archaeobotanical, zooarchaelogical and pottery remains
excavated from Lički Ribnik, Croatia.
2. The villa at Lički Ribnik
Lički Ribnik is located in the meander of the river Lika,
6 km south of Gospić, in the Lika municipality (Figure 1).
As a region, it can be characterized as a mountain plateau
at altitudes between 450–700 m (Kokotović Kanazir
et al.
,
2016). The region has a humid continental climate, but
experiences high diurnal ranges, especially in summer, and
frost has been recorded in every month except for July, with
strong blizzards in the winter. Today, grain yields of feld
crops in the mountainous Lika region are considerably lower
than in lowland areas of Croatia, mainly due to the poor
soils and climatic limitations (Kovačević, Buzaši, 2005).
In addition, the region sufers from a comparatively short
growing period, due to the occurrence of late spring and
early autumn frosts.
Excavations began in 2012 after the discovery of
tesserae
from the Ribnik peninsula in the previous year. During the
three-day trial excavation, architectural remains of a building
were discovered along with fragments of a mosaic (Kolak,
Figure 1.
Location of Lički Ribnik and the
other 12 sites with archaeobotanical remains
dating to the Roman period. (1) Danilo,
(2) Nadin-Gradina, (3) Port of Aenona/
Zaton, (4) Caska, (5) Flacius Street, Pula
(6) Veli Brijun, (7) Poreč, (8) Sčitarjevo,
(9) Vitrovitica Kiškorija – jug, (10) Osijek
– Silos, and Osijek – Park kraljice Katarine
Kosače (11) Illok.
0 100 km
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Figure 2.
Plan of the Roman Villa at Lički
Ribnik.
Figure 3.
Plan of the villa’s northern building at Lički Ribnik highlighting the stove within the villa kitchen where the archaeobotancial sample was
collected.
0 40 m
0 4 m
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Figure 4.
Illustrations of the pottery
recovered from Lički Ribnik. (1) amphora
Dr 6b (2) amphora Dr 6b (3) bottom of pot
(4) bottom of pot (5) rim of a bowl (6) bottom
of a bowl (7) bottom of Pannonian plate
(8) terra sigillata Consp. 27.1; 10 (9) Shard
of Sarius cup (10) Shard of thin-walled
pottery.
2013, p.163; 2015). The following year a geophysical survey
revealed the remains of a large set of buildings (Mušič,
2014), 200 m
2
of which was revealed during excavations
in 2014 and 2015 (Figure 2). The site represents a typical
Roman
villa rustica
that operated as a farm or country-house
with commercial (
pars rustica
) and household facilities
(
pars urbana
) (
e.g.
Buchi, 1987, p.109; Matijašić, 1998,
p.115–145; Suić, 2003, p.323). The excavations so far suggest
that the site was inhabited from the 1
st
to 4
th
Centuries AD.
Within the northern part of the site (Zone A), the
commercial part of the villa was identifed from a forge or
smelting area and a possible ‘kitchen’ area to the east. The
kitchen contained two stoves, one that was rectangular and
one that was smaller and circular in shape. Within the forge, a
large amount of slag, or waste from iron smelting was found.
The geophysical survey suggests that the forge and kitchen
were separated by a large room, which likely represents an
open-air atrium. Other fnds include a loom weight and worn
coins possibly dating to
Marcus Aurelius
(121–180 AD) or
Verus
Lucius
(139–169 AD).
Within the southern part of the site (Zone B), the
stratigraphy was particularly challenging, but it is suggested
that this was the residential area of the villa. Fragments of
a foor mosaic were discovered under a wall aligned north-
south. The fragments (dimensions 90 (120 cm) × 50 cm)
show polychromatic geometrical motifs made in
opus
tesselatum
, with two borders of a black and white meander
with an integrated swastika and a black, white and red braid.
The borders probably formed a frame around a feld of black
rhombus shapes on a white foundation that could surround
a small rhomboid or square panel with a decoration inside.
A similar decoration is found in Valbadon, Istria (Meder,
2003, p.49, T XV: 2). The pattern of a mainly black and
white geometrical foor mosaic with a double braid can be
dated to the 2
nd
Century AD (Meder, 2003, pp.19–20, 92–93),
while the wall overlaying it likely dates to the 4
th
Century
AD. Other fnds included small copper coins of Theodosius
I (383–388 AD) and
sestertius
of Gordian III (241–243 AD)
and
tubuli
, indicating that the site had a hypocaust.
3. The remains recovered in the villa’s kitchen
An archaeobotanical sample was collected from the large
stove in the kitchen (Zone A; Figure 3). The sample, which
was foated using bucket fotation and a 300μm sieve,
contained over 300 broomcorn millet (
Panicum miliaceum
)
grains (Table 1), along with a possible pea and ten weed
seeds, including large grasses, a corn cockle (
Agrostemma
githago
) and two seeds from the buckwheat/knotgrass family
(
Polygonum
sp. and
rumex
sp.). Charcoal collected from the
stove dated the layer to the second half of the 2
nd
and frst
half of the 3
rd
century AD.
The cultural layer above the stove contained 54 shards of
Roman pottery that could be broadly grouped into kitchen
ware, tableware and amphora (Figure 4). However, this was
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a thin layer above the feature and may have been disturbed by
ploughing or other agricultural activities. The most frequent
pottery was coarse ware, mostly associated with cooking,
storage or preparation, and these items were represented by
three pottery fabric types that are believed to have slightly
diferent uses (Figure 5). Fabric group 1 is represented by
pots that are preserved only by their bottoms (Figure 4: 3,
4) and Fabric group 2 by a rim shard and the bottom of two
cooking bowls (casseroles) of Aegean origin or imitating the
Aegean cooking ware (Figure 4: 5, 6). Forms similar to these
fnds can be dated to the 2
nd
to 3
rd
centuries AD (Parica, 2008,
p.87; Taras, 2015). Fabric group 3 includes 16 shards of pots
whose form could not be identifed, but they may belong
to the typical Roman ovoid pots. In addition, the bottom
of a red slipped baking pan (or plate) was found, possibly
Pannonian in origin, dating from the 2
nd
to 3
rd
centuries AD
(Ožanić Roguljić, 2016, pp.49–51).
Fragments of tableware were also found and seemed to
date to the earlier occupation of the site. In particular, a shard
of a Sarius cup with a fragment of relief of a pillar with a
capital holding another motif, maybe a bucranium, was
recovered (Figure 4: 9). This kind of decoration is connected
to the potter HILARUS, who dates from the early 1
st
century
AD (Augustus to Tiberius), or was made in his style. Similar
examples of this decoration can be seen in Osor, Northern
Liburnia (Makjanić, 1982, p.52; Brusić, 1999, p.182,
Figure 50; Mantovani, 2011, p.173, Figure 7: 7). Further
fnds included: one rim of North Italian sigillata (Padana)
(Figure 4: 9) that could belong to the cylindrical cup Consp.
Form 27.2 dated from 15–100 AD (Ettlinger
et al.
, 1990,
p.100; Mazzeo Saracino, 1985, p.201), and one shard of thin-
walled pottery with roulette decoration (Figure 4: 10) that
shows elements of possible eastern Adriatic origin dating to
the 1
st
century AD (Ožanić Roguljić, 2011, pp.31–38).
Table 1.
Archaeobotanical remains from Lički Ribnik.
Sample Ku. K-9: SJ26 & SJ18, U-1
Number
Cereals
Panicum miliaceum
[grain]279
cf.
Panicum miliaceum
[grain]49
cf.
triticum monococcum
[grain]1
Cerealia
[grain]1
Pulses
cf.
Pisum sativum
1
Wild/Weedy species
Agrostemma githago
1
Gramineae
[large fragments]7
cf.
Polygonum
sp.1
rumex
sp.1
Paniceae
2
Total343
Indeterminate [fragments]6
Figure 5.
Coarse pottery fabric groups: 1) Clay: reddish brown; hard; white
irregular non-dissolvable inclusions (quartz), and white irregular dissolvable
(limestone), grog, small irregular voids; 2) Clay: dark reddish brown; hard,
white irregular non-dissolvable inclusions (quartz), big irregular voids;
3) Clay: black- greyish; hard, white irregular non-dissolvable inclusions
(quartz).
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4. The remains recovered in the villa’s southern building
Animal bones were collected from two pits near the mosaic
within the southern part of the site (Zone B; Figure 6). In
total there were only eleven fragments. The identifed taxa
include two common domestic animals: sheep (
Ovis aries
)
and cattle (
Bos taurus
).
Four skeletal fragments were recovered from one pit (SJ2).
Three of them are assigned to a sheep (
Ovis aries
): small
horn fragment, fused proximal end of a left humerus, and a
complete right metacarpal. In addition to these fragments, an
unfused proximal epiphysis of a sheep or goat (
Ovis/Capra
)
right tibia was also found. The lack of diagnostic features
prevents an accurate identifcation of this bone (see Zeder
and Lapham, 2010, for summarised list of criteria), however,
its presence with other positively identifed sheep bones
would suggest that this element belongs to the same taxon,
bearing in mind that this does not exclude the presence of
goats within the villa. These remains came from at least two
diferent animals, one young (unfused tibia) and one adult.
Except for some light weathering present on the surface, these
fragments show very little bone modifcations and exhibit
no cut marks or any breakage patterns typical for butchery.
However, three humeri and metacarpal fragments have traces
of burning that are irregularly shaped and reddish-brown in
colour. They are partially burnt on their proximal end (across
articulated surface) suggesting that the remainder of the
bone was probably still covered with soft tissue (muscle and/
or skin). Such patterns of bone modifcation are typical for
intentional food preparation by roasting or boiling (Lyman,
1994, pp.385–386). The horn fragment is completely burnt
(partially carbonised with dominant dark grey colour). As this
fragment comes from a non-edible body part it is probably
butchery waste and its burning accidental,
i.e.
unrelated to
food preparation.
From another pit (SJ7) there are seven skeletal fragments,
six originating from domestic cattle (
Bos taurus
): a fragment
of a scapula blade, a left distal humerus (fused), two right
distal humeri shafts, a left tibia shaft, and a small fragment
of a right calcaneus. A small fragment of indeterminate fat
bone of a large-sized animal was also discovered, which
could have belonged to the aforementioned cattle scapula,
but it lacks characteristic morphological features for a
positive identifcation. These cattle remains belonged to
three diferent individual animals of indeterminate age.
Unlike the sheep remains, none of these bones had traces
of burning. However, the presence of butchery marks is
identifed on all three humeri fragments and a calcaneus,
as well as on the indeterminate fat bone fragment. There
are two distinctive types: chop or hack marks, likely from
a heavy knife or a cleaver (Seetah, 2004), and cut marks.
The former have been recognised on humeri shafts at other
Figure 6.
Plan of the villa’s southern building at Lički Ribnik showing the location of the animal remains.
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sites indicating that these bones were transversally chopped
into segments, either for easier food preparation or to extract
bone marrow (Maltby, 2007). Regular cut marks can be seen
on articular ends and across shafts and most likely came from
meat removal. In addition, one humerus fragment is gnawed
on the distal end, probably by dogs, suggesting that at least
some of these remains were to a certain degree exposed to
outside factors before being deposited into the pit.
Two rims of Dressel 6b amphorae of Istrian origin (Figure 4: 1,
2) are found in this part of the site (SU 2, Kv M, N-7,8) belonging
to the 2
nd
half of the 2
nd
or 1
st
half of the 3
rd
century AD.
5. Millet consumption at Lički Ribnik
Ancient sources suggest that before the establishment of the
Roman province of Dalmatia, the Iapodians inhabited the Lika
region and lived for the most part on spelt and millet (Strabo
VII, 4, 10). Later during the late 2
nd
and early 3
rd
century, AD
historian Cassius Dio, in mentioning Augustus’s campaign
against the Pannonians (the neighbouring province to
Dalmatia) in 35 BC, states of these people ‘they do not
cultivate [that is, make] wine, except for a little bit which
is bad, since they spend most of the time in a very harsh
winter [climate], but rather eat and drink both barley and
millet’ (Dio Cassius 49.36, 2–4). Beer was not popular with
the Romans and beer drinking was considered barbaric
and a custom of the poor (Miličević Bradač, 1999–2000,
pp.69–70). The absence of sprouting grains (either millet or
barley), which indicate grain-based fermented beverages,
makes it impossible to confrm whether brewing was
conducted at the villa.
In Dalmatia, millet is rarely found in Roman contexts,
although very few sites have been sampled. Of the villa
sites, only eight grains of broomcorn millet were recovered
from Veli Brijun, four from Osijek-Silos (Reed
et al.
, 2019),
and no millet from Danilo (Šoštarić, Küster, 2001; Šoštarić,
2003). Small quantities of millet (
Panicum miliaceum
) have
also been found at the Dalmatian hillfort of Nadin-Gradina
(Nye, 1996), the port of Aenona (Gluščević
et al.
, 2006), the
pannonian village at Vitrovitica Kiškorija (Šoštarić
et al.
,
2015), and the graves at Ilok and Sćitarjevo (Šoštarić
et al.
,
2006) (Figure 1). Nonetheless, this does not mean that millet
was regularly consumed in the region. From stable carbon
and nitrogen isotope analyses of Iron Age, Roman, and Early
Medieval human bone collagen recovered from sites just
south of Lički Ribnik, there is little evidence of signifcant
C4 foodstuf being eaten, whether directly consumed by
humans or eating animals that were fed on millet, until the
end of the Roman period (Lightfoot
et al.
, 2012).
Millet has been discovered at other villa sites across
the empire, but similarly in small quantities. Finds in
Hungary are sporadic with only Sopron-Beloiannisz tér 6,
a 4
th
–5
th
century AD building, yielding 1,000 broomcorn
millet grains (Gyulai, 2010). Even in Italy very few millet
fnds are noted (Murphy, 2016, Figure 2). So its discovery
at Lički Ribnik, within a kitchen stove, may indicate that the
grains were intended for human consumption. Ancient texts
support this, suggesting that millet was consumed either for
food or as medicine in Italy and was grown, according to
Pliny (N.H. XVIII.xxiv-xxv), in Campania and on the banks
of the Po. Columella (Col. II.ix.19) notes that bread made of
millet “may be eaten without distaste before it cools. Panic,
when ground and freed from bran, and millet as well, makes
a porridge which, especially with milk, is not to be despised
even in time of plenty.” The 4
th
century AD medical writer
Oribasius (I.15.1–3) writes that “on occasion bread is made
from [millet], whenever there occurs a shortage of those
grains useful for food”, while “countryside people boil meal
made from millet and then eat it after mixing in lard or olive-
oil”, “millet is better than panic in every respect: for it is
more pleasant in taste, not so difcult to digest, constipates
the stomach less, and is more nutritious”. In these texts it is
generally agreed that millet or
Milium
refers to broomcorn
millet (
Panicum miliaceum
), while
panic
refers to foxtail
millet (
Setaria italica
).
Many of the ancient agricultural writers refer to millet;
however, it is important to note that these texts are generally
biased towards elite audiences with large-scale agricultural
farms located in fertile plains of the Po valley, Campania,
and surrounding Rome (MacKinnon, 2004, p.16). What
types of soil best suited millet cultivation is debated in the
texts: Columella (II.ix.17) recommends light loose soil, Cato
(VI.1) rich soil in areas where fog is prevalent, while Pliny
(N.H. 18.xxv.101) suggests millet should receive very little
water. Columella (II.ix.18) notes that “[Panic and millet]
cannot be sown before spring, for they are fond of warm
weather above all; but they are entrusted to the earth to best
advantage in the latter part of March”. Pliny (N.H. 18.10) too
states that millet was sown both in the spring and summer.
Today’s millets, including broomcorn millet, ofer a modest
yield under marginal farming conditions, with poor soils,
short growing seasons and with low to no input, making
them an attractive crop option in mountain, hill and tribal
agricultural areas (Padulosi
et al.
, 2009). The mountainous
region surrounding Lički Ribnik would have likely suited
millet cultivation, especially as it too is afected with poor
soils and a relatively short growing season. Other advantages
of millet cultivation mentioned by ancient authors include the
small volume of sowing seed required (Col. II.ix.18), as well
as the fact that it can be stored within the husks for longer
periods than other grains (Col. II.ix.18; Pliny XVIII.x.60-xi).
Strabo (5.i.12) also remarks that in the Po valley millet was a
sure protector against famine when other crops failed. Other
notes on millet cultivation include the necessity to manure
and plant legumes to replenish the soil (Col.II.xiii.3), and the
need to repeatedly weed (Col. II.ix.18).
6. Animal husbandry and meat consumption
at Lički Ribnik
Focus on the relative proportions of the three main domestic
species, cattle, sheep/goat, and pig, in zooarchaeological
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assemblages from the Roman Empire has been comparatively
high. King (1999) noted very generally that the inhabitants
of Italy enjoyed a heavily pig-dominated diet, whereas
assemblages from Roman Britain were generally dominated
by cattle and sheep/goat, from Roman Germany by both pig
and cattle, and in Roman Provence by sheep/goat. In Hungary,
cattle are overwhelmingly dominant in faunal assemblages,
especially from military sites, while caprines and pig vary
across the region (Bartosiewicz, 1990–1991; Choyke, 2003,
p.212). These variations are said to emphasise, along with
environmental and economic considerations, the role of
cultural choice in explaining to what degree cattle, pig and
sheep were exploited in a region (King, 1999).
In Croatia, most of the zooarchaeological remains from
Roman sites represent relatively low numbers of animals,
which prevents any conclusions regarding any preference
for certain species. For example, at Crikvenica – Igralište
467 bones identifed to genus/species represented fve cattle
(2 adults and 3 juvenile), six sheep/goat (3 adults, 2 juvenile
and 1 indet age), fve pigs (4 juveniles and 1 adult) and
one juvenile chicken, along with horse, dog, red deer, wild
boar and badger (Miculinić, 2018, p.84). At Lički Ribnik
only three cattle and two sheep (1 juvenile and 1 adult) are
represented. Thus, these small assemblages are unlikely to
be representative of the frequency of cattle, sheep/goat and
pig in the region. However, today the inhabitants of the Lika
region use the nearby mountains for grazing sheep during the
summer months (Vukelić, 2002), and so sheep herding could
have been practised as part of the Lički Ribnik villa system.
Most of the information we have about animal husbandry
for the Roman period comes from the Roman agronomists
Cato, Varro and Columella. They suggest that cattle were
exploited for ploughing, caprines for wool and milk and pigs
for meat and manure. In particular, Cato (RR 76–81), Varro
RR (2.2 f,) and Columella (VII. 2.1) mention the importance
of sheep and goat milk, especially in relation to the making
of cheese (Columella XII.13). In terms of meat processing,
it is suggested that animals were generally slaughtered in
winter; due to the lower temperatures allowing the meat
to be better preserved (Palladius,
Op. agric
. 13:6). Once
slaughtered, the animals would have been butchered, likely
with a cleaver, a large butcher’s knife used for intensive
slicing and dismemberment (Dobney
et al.
, 2002; Seetah,
2012). These types of cut marks, from a heavy knife, were
identifed on the cattle bones recovered from Lički Ribnik.
In addition, long bones (
i.e.
humerus and tibia) dominate
the assemblage. These are typically identifed as parts of
the animal that are higher in meat. It is therefore likely that
the majority of the remains recovered from the pits at Lički
Ribnik represent butchered sections of meat. Once the animal
was processed, the meat portions obtained were prepared to
be preserved or to be cooked. A number of techniques may
have been employed to preserve foodstufs, for example,
salt-curation, smoking, marinating and drying (Leguilloux,
2002). If cooked, the meat could have been grilled, roasted,
boiled, stewed or fried (Varro R.R. 5.109). At Lički Ribnik,
evidence of burning on some of the sheep bones and three
distal humeri of cattle may be indicative of cooking and
consumption activities at the villa.
7. Food preparation in Dalmatia
Although over 200 villas have been identifed and excavated
in the Roman province of Dalmatia, only the villa at Danilo
Šematorij provides evidence of an oven that is probably
part of a kitchen (Pedišić, 2000, p.523). Even within urban
settlements only one kitchen feature has been identifed from
Nadin (Nedinum), while possible kitchen waste was recently
identifed from Bribir (Varavaria) (Pers. comm. Martina
Čelhar and Igor Borzić). Thus, the kitchen discovered at
Lički Ribnik provides a unique glimpse of a Roman villa
kitchen in the Dalmatia region. The size and function of a
Roman “kitchen” varied from house to house depending on
many factors such as social status and the size of the property
(
e.g.
Foss, 1994, pp.71–73, p.173; Varro Vita Populi Romani,
frg. 28 (Non. p. 55M); Varro RR 1.13.2). Small households
may simply have a cooking area using a brazier to cook food
or no cooking facilities at all, while large urban and rural
villas would have the space for specifc rooms for cooking
and storage, although portable braziers are also mentioned
(
e.g.
McKay, 1998, p.94; Packer, 1971). As at Lički Ribnik,
kitchens at many of the larger properties were generally
located far away from the dining area and near a water source
(Foss, 1994, pp.172–173).
In Pompeii, kitchens had large masonry installations, with a
stove leaning against the wall (Alfonso
et al.
, 2013, pp.71–92;
Bonini, 2011; Bonini, Dal Porto, 2003). Yet at Lički Ribnik
a round and a rectangular stove were discovered placed in
the middle of the room (Figure 7). The rectangular stove,
made from stone and daub, was likely raised on a structure
several feet above the foor and cooking would have taken
place on top, where pots were placed over the ashes of small
fres (Jelinčić Vučković, 2015, p.70). The archaeobotanical
samples discussed here were recovered from the rectangular
stove. The round stove was likely a small clay oven of the
‘beehive type’ used to bake bread and bakery goods, but also
other foods like meat, fsh, cereals, legumes and vegetables
could be roasted, dried or baked in it (Foss, 1994, pp.66–67;
Apicius 5.3.2, 5.4.6, 6.5.6, 7.2.1, 7.4.1–2, 7.5.1, 7.9.1, 7.10,
7.13.2, 8.1.1, 8.1.3, 8.6.8–10, 8.7.1, 8.7.5, 8.7.7–9, 8.7.14,
8.8.1, 8.8.3, 8.8.12, 10.1.4.).
As well as the structures in the kitchen, the study of vessels
associated with culinary practices can provide important
information on how utensils may have been used to process,
cook and serve food at the villa. Each meal would have
required certain cooking wares adapted to the diferent heat
intensities to which the food product had to be exposed. For
example, Fabric 1 pots found at Lički Ribnik are believed to
be used for cooking food for long periods, such as for stewing
(Arthur, 2007, pp.18–19) and brewing. Fabric 2 bowls were
suitable for cooking cereals and pulses, as well as meat like
goat, mutton or lamb. Cooking in these open vessels enabled
the liquid to evaporate, resulting in a dry or thick dish which
image/svg+xml
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Kelly Reed, Ivana Ožanić Roguljić, Siniša Radović, Tatjana Kolak: Daily Food Consumption in a Rural Roman Villa: Excavations at Lički Ribnik, Croatia
61
could be accompanied by some sort of sauce (Arthur, 2007,
p.18). The discovery of Dressel 6b amphoras may suggest
the importation of olive oil to the villa, although its later
smaller variants could also be used for wine, fruit or garum
(Marion, Starac, 2001).
The discovery of a shard of a red slipped baking pan could
suggest that the dish
patina
(a Roman dish including various
ingredients mixed with eggs) or bread was also being made
and eaten at the villa. Because of the design of the Italic pan,
with its broad, shallow body, straight walls and fat bottom,
food baked in it would have taken on a defned form, such as
savoury or sweet pies, or quiches. In
De re conquinaria
by
Apicius the Roman taste for such preparations is seen, where
these pans are specifcally called for in 53 of the recipes. The
most popular type of dish described by Apicius is the patina,
to which an entire chapter with 37 recipes is devoted. It is
important to note, however, that this cook book was likely
directed towards an elite audience in Rome, but recipes
probably fltered through society and may have been cooked
at the villa site in Lika.
8. Conclusion
Archaeobotanical, zooarchaeological and pottery evidence
was collected from the rural villa of Lički Ribnik, Croatia.
The remains date from the second half of the 2
nd
to the frst
half of the 3
rd
century and provide the frst evidence of villa
consumption in the Lika region. The data is particularly
limited and is not representative of the diet at the villa, but
does provide a glimpse of some items that could have been
consumed at the site. The discovery of broomcorn millet
(
Panicum miliaceum
) within the large rectangular stove in
the presumed villa kitchen suggests that millet was eaten at
Figure 7.
Picture of the two stoves within
the villa’s kitchen at Lički Ribnik.
the villa, although possibly as a minor crop. The discovery
of broomcorn millet is also particularly important as millet is
not regularly mentioned in ancient agrarian texts and is not
often identifed in archaeobotanical or isotopic studies across
the Roman Empire. Evidence of cut marks on the cattle bones
and burning on the sheep bones, found in the southern part of
the villa, probably indicate evidence of butchery and cooking
techniques at the site. The pottery fragments recovered
indicate that a range of dishes could have been cooked at the
villa, including the Roman dish
patina
. Unfortunately, further
conclusions about who may have been eating these items or
how they were consumed is not possible from the limited
evidence presented here. Nevertheless, the study does show
the importance of collecting and examining environmental
evidence in conjunction with other archaeological material
in order to understand local diet and economy at Roman
period sites.
Acknowledgements
This paper is part of the project “Life on the Roman Road”
(LRR – UIP-05-2017-9768, Croatian science foundation).
Many thanks to the two referees, who provided valuable
comments on an earlier version of the manuscript.
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thelatinlibrary.com/cato.html, 20.10. 2018.
Columella RR.
L. Junius Moderatus Columella, De Re Rustica, http://
www.thelatinlibrary.com/columella.html, 14.4.2018.
image/svg+xml
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Kelly Reed, Ivana Ožanić Roguljić, Siniša Radović, Tatjana Kolak: Daily Food Consumption in a Rural Roman Villa: Excavations at Lički Ribnik, Croatia
62
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