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65
X/1/2019
InterdIscIplInarIa archaeologIca
natural scIences In archaeology
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
Elemental Analysis of Silver Coins during the Umayyads through the PIXE
Method
Zohreh Jozi
a
, Parasto Masjedi Khak
b*
, Alireza Nosrati
a
a
Department of Archaeology, University of Sistan and Baluchestan,
Zahedan, Iran
b
Department of Archaeology, University of Neyshabur, Khorasan Razavi, Iran
1. Introduction
The Umayyads founded the Umayyad dynasty under the
leadership of Muawiyah Ibn Abu Sufyan in 41 AH (662
AD) and this government continued until 132 AH (753
AD) (Hawting, 1986, pp.35–39). During Muawiyah’s
reign, Damascus became the capital of the Islamic State.
The territory ruled by them was extended to India in the
east and to the Iberian Peninsula in Spain in the west. Abd
al-Malik ibn Marwan, the ffth Umayyad caliph (686–707
AD/ 65–86 AH), saved the Umayyad government from
chaos when it was on the verge of collapse and, thereby, was
able to bring about some reforms in the administrative and
fnancial afairs of the state. Following him, Walid ibn Abd
al-Malik (707–717 AD/ 86–96 AH) reached the height of
power. The most important issue in the Walid era was the
expansion through conquest, which included the conquest
of Transoxania, Sindh, Africa, Andalusia, and conquests on
the Roman front. These conquests are of special signifcance
in Walid’s political performance. Also, Walid’s interest in
developmental afairs and, of course, in the treasury that his
father had left him, made him have an eye for the Caliphate’s
development in addition to his own interests (ibid). During
the era of Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik (717–720 AD/
96–99 AH), the number of conquests fell sharply compared
to that of Walid’s period. After him, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz
(720–722 AD/99–101 AH) came to rule. His political actions
were mostly directed towards the preservation of conquest
and supervision of the governors’ performance in diferent
regions. Then, Yazid bin Abd al-Malik (722–726 AD/
101–105 AH) came to rule until the reign of Hisham ibn Abd
al-Malik (726–746 AD/ 105–125 AH). Hisham’s rule is a
brilliant era in the history of the Umayyads and conquests
continued during his period (Maqrizi, 1967, p.54).
Volume X ● Issue 1/2019 ● Pages 65–75
*Corresponding author. E-mail: parastomasjedi@yahoo.com
ARtIcle INfo
Article history:
Received: 21
st
June 2018
Accepted: 24
th
July 2019
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.24916/iansa.2019.1.5
Key words:
silver extraction
lead
the Umayyads
PIXE
coin minting
ABStRAct
The Umayyads began their rule as the Caliphs of the newly-established Islamic empire in Damascus
from 41 to 130 AH (662 to 751 AD). The territory ruled by them had been extended to India to the east
and to the Iberian Peninsula in Spain to the west. The Umayyad government reached its peak at the
time of Walid ibn Abd al-Malik and Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik. In this study, 42 silver coins belonging
to the Umayyad Caliphs (Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, Walid ibn Abd al-Malik, Sulayman ibn Abd al-
Malik, Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz, Yazid bin Abd al-Malik, Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, Walid ibn Yazid,
Yazid ibn Walid, Ibrahim ibn Walid, and Marwan ibn Muhammad) were analyzed through the PIXE
method. These coins have been minted at the Wasit, Basra, Damascus, Merv, Darabgerd, and Kerman
mints from 82 to 128 AH (703 to 749 AD). The weight of the coins lies between 2.3 and 2.8 grams.
The amount of silver in the coins varied from 86.13% to 90.95% with an average of 90.39% silver. In
general, except for the year 126 AH (the Umayyad regime’s decline), the coins of the Umayyad period
are of a great carat, which is because of various factors, such as the political and economic situation,
access to silver sources,
etc.
The comparison of coins of the Umayyad era with those of the Sassanid
period shows that the technology of extracting and minting silver in the Umayyad period did not difer
from that in the Sassanid period. Similarly, the amount of gold in the specimens shows that probably
the Umayyads, like the Sassanids, have used Cerussite ore in the minting of their coins. Our table
pertaining to the distribution of the elements of gold, silver, and lead in these coins shows that no single
ore has been used in minting the Umayyed coins.
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After Hisham, there began a decline of Umayyad rule,
such that three caliphs, namely Walid ibn Yazid (746 AD/
125 AH), Yazid ibn Walid (747 AD/126 AH), and Ibrahim
bin Walid (747 AD/126 AH) came to power within only one
year. Ultimately, the last Umayyad caliph came to rule,
i.e.
Marwan ibn Muhammad (748–753 AD/127–132 AH) and
this dynasty came to an end after Marwan was defeated
by the Abbasids. The last survivor of the Umayyads went
to Andalusia (Spain) and founded the branch known as the
Spanish Umayyads, which survived from 759 to 1043 AD/
138 to 422 AH (Hawting, 1986, p.41).
2. Mint of coins in the Umayyad period
In the Umayyad period, Muslims used Sassanian and
Byzantine coins in their exchanges until the reign of Abd
al-Malik ibn Marwan (Ibn KHaldun, 1980). Due to the
neglect of governments, impure dinars and dirhams with a
high degree of impurity became common ((Ibn Khaldun,
1980, 500), which was followed by Abd al-Malik’s
command for minting coins for the frst time in 695 AD/
74 AH (Ibn al-Athir, 1987, p.167; Baladhuri, 1866, p.651).
Today, the oldest coins remaining from Abd al-Malik ibn
Marwan’s period date back to 699 AD/ 78 AH (Yousef Faraj
Allah, 1985, p.37). Abd al-Malik appointed a steady carat for
dirham and dinar and, accordingly, he put ofcial currency
with its own characteristics into operation and limited the
right to mint coins by assigning it only to the state mints
(Baladhuri, 1866, p.473).
After Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, the minting of coins in
the periods of Walid ibn Abd al-Malik, Sulayman ibn Abd
al-Malik, and Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz continued in the same
way (Maqrizi, 1967, p.58). During the reign of Yazid bin
Abd al-Malik (722–726 AD/ 101–105 AH), plenty of strict
rules were applied to the weight of coins (Baladhuri, 1866,
p.652). When Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik came to power
(726–746 AD/ 105–125 AH), he closed the mints in all cities
except Wasit; and dirham coins were minted only in Wasit
(Maqrizi, 1967, p.16). This process continued until the period
of Walid ibn Yazid and, during Marwan ibn Muhammad’s
period (748–753 AD/ 127–132 AH), he – the last Umayyad
caliph – also minted some dirhams in the Harran mint in
addition to Wasit (Baladhuri, 1866, p.17).
3. Research background
Several studies have been carried out in connection with
coins pertaining to the early years of the Islamic era. In
this regard, Ziad conducted his studies, where he collected
a series of Umayyad silver coins that had been minted in
the Wasit mint between 87 and 120 AH (708–741 AD),
through the XRF method. His fndings highlight the high
quality of the coins minted in this mint, where he reported
an average silver content of 94.71% in the coins. His studies
showed that there was a clear tendency towards better-
quality dirhams over time, which may be due to the high
control and constraints on the policies of coin minting by the
rulers (Ziad, 1999). Al-Kofahi and Al-Tarawneh analyzed
a total of 7 silver dirhams belonging to the Ayoubian era
(564–648 AH) and 9 coins belonging to the Mamalik period
(648–865 AH) by the XRF method. Their results showed
that the amount of silver in the Ayoubian coins was between
8% and 52%, while a content of 12% to 55% silver existed
in the coins belonging to the Mamalik era. The amount of
copper in the coins belonging to the Ayoubian and Mamalik
periods varied from 5% to 79%, and the high levels of copper
in these coins has been attributed to the counterfeiting that
took place in some mints (Al-Kofahi, Al-Tarawneh, 2000).
In other study, Ben Abdelouaheda analyzed a collection of
28 silver coins belonging to the Islamic period (from the
7
th
to the 15
th
century) via the PIXE method. His results
showed that coins pertaining to the Umayyad and Abbasid
periods enjoyed a high carat; however, the coins belonging
to the Fatimid and Zirid periods did not enjoy a good carat
since their silver content was signifcantly reduced and their
copper content increased. This issue has been attributed
to the dominant economic conditions and the surveillance
system of these states (Ben Abdelouaheda
et al.
, 2010).
Figure 1.
Location of the mints of Umayyad
coins in this study.
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No. 1:
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan coin minted in Basra in 82 AH with
the weight of 2.5 g.
No. 2:
Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan coin minted in Wasit in 85 AH with
the weight of 2.3 g.
No. 3:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin minted in Damascus in 88 AH with
the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 4:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin minted in Wasit in 88 AH with the
weight of 2.8 g.
No. 5:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin minted in Wasit in 90 AH with the
weight of 2.8 g
No. 6:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin minted in Wasit in 90 AH with the
weight of 2.7 g.
No. 7:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin minted in Wasit in 92 AH with the
weight of 2.8 g.
No. 8:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin minted in Wasit in 92 AH with the
weight of 2.8 g.
No. 9:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin minted in Wasit in 92 AH with the
weight of 2.8 g.
No. 10:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin minted in Wasit in 92 AH with the
weight of 2.8 g.
No. 11:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin minted in Darabgerd in 94 AH
with the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 12:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Kerman in 94 AH with
the weight of 2.7 g.
No. 13:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Merv in 95 AH with the
weight of 2.8 g.
No. 14:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Merv in 95 AH with the
weight of 2.8 g.
0 3 cm
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Figure 2.
The coins under study pertaining to the Umayyad era.
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No. 15:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 95 AH with the
weight of 2.8 g.
No. 16:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 95 AH with the
weight of 2.8 g.
No. 17:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 95 AH with the
weight of 2.8 g.
No. 18:
Walid bin Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 95 AH with the
weight of 2.8 g.
No. 19:
Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 97 AH
with the weight of 2.6 g.
No. 20:
Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Damascus in 98 AH
with the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 21:
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz coin, minted in Basra in 100 AH with the
weight of 2.8 g.
No. 22:
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz coin, minted in Basra in 101 AH with the
weight of 2.8 g.
No. 23:
Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz coin, minted in Damascus in 101 AH
with the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 24:
Yazid bin Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 104 AH with
the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 25:
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 107 AH with
the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 26:
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 108 AH with
the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 27:
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 110 AH with
the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 28:
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 111 AH with
the weight of 2.8 g.
Figure 2.
The coins under study pertaining to the Umayyad era. (
continuation
)
0 3 cm
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0 3 cm
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No. 29:
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 115 AH with
the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 30:
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 117 AH with
the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 31:
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 117 AH with
the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 32:
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 108 AH with
the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 33:
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 121 AH with
the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 34:
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 121 AH with
the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 35:
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 122 AH with
the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 36:
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 122 AH with
the weight of 2.6 g.
No. 37:
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 123 AH with
the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 38:
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik coin, minted in Wasit in 123 AH with
the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 39:
Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik (105-125 AH) coin, minted in Wasit
in 125 AH with the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 40:
Walid ibn Yazid, Yazid ibn Walid (126); Ibrahim ibn Walid
(126 AH) coin, minted in Wasit in 126 AH with the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 41:
Walid ibn Yazid, Yazid ibn Walid (126); Ibrahim ibn Walid
(126 AH) coin, minted in Wasit in 126 AH with the weight of 2.8 g.
No. 42:
Marwan ibn Muhammad coin, minted in Basra in 82 AH with
the weight of 2.5 g.
Figure 2.
The coins under study pertaining to the Umayyad era. (
continuation
)
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
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0 3 cm
0 3 cm
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70
4. Umayyad mints
In the various resources and studies, reference is made to more
than eighty Umayyad mints where coins had been minted and,
except for the Damascus, Afrique (Kairouan), and Andalusia
(Córdoba) mints, all the other ones were located in Iran and
Iraq,
i.e.
the land belonging to the Sassanid Empire. The frst
dinar coin of the Umayyad dynasty dates back to 698 AD/ 77
AH without the name of any mint; and the frst dirham coin
was minted in 699 AD/ 78 AH in Shagh al-Teimareh mint,
central Iran (Shams Eshragh, 1990, pp.150–154). In this
study, coins that were minted in Damascus (Damascus was
the capital of the Umayyad dynasty from 657 to 748 AD/
from 36 to 127 AH), Wasit, Merv, Basra, Darabgerd, and
Kerman have been analyzed (Figure 1).
5. Research objectives
Since the territory under the control of Umayyad Caliphs
also included areas under the domination of the Sassanids,
the aim of this study is to examine whether or not the mineral
ores used in the Umayyad coinage were diferent from those
of the Sassanid period. Moreover, with regard to the studied
coins belonging to the years 703 to 749 AD (82 to 128 AH),
their economic status and the carat of the coins of this time
period will be examined.
6. Materials and methods
6.1 Preparation method
In this study, coins pertaining to the Umayyad period, which
are kept in the archive of the Museum of Southeast Iran, were
examined. To remove contamination from the surface of
specimens, the coins were frst washed with distilled water,
then washed in acetone, and, fnally, washed again in distilled
water and placed in the room to dry. Thereafter, they were
transferred to the Van de Graaf accelerator of the Atomic
Energy Organization so that the necessary experiments could
be conducted on them through the PIXE method. In total,
42 silver coins were studied, as described below. Two of these
coins belonged to the Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan period, and
had been minted between 703 and 706 AD (82 to 85 AH) in
Basra and Wasit. Another 16 coins were related to the Walid
ibn Abd al-Malik period, and had been minted between 709
and 716 AD (88 and 95 AH) in Damascus, Wasit, Merv,
Darabgerd, and Kerman. Two coins out of the 42 belonged to
the Sulayman ibn Abd al-Malik period, and had been minted
between 718 and 719 AD (97 and 98 AH) in Wasit and
Damascus. Another three coins belonged to the Umar ibn
Abd al-Aziz period, minted between 721 and 722 AD (100
and 101 AH) in Basra and Damascus. One coin belonged to
the period of Yazid bin Abd al-Malik, and had been minted in
725 AD (104 AH) in Wasit. Fifteen coins were related to the
period of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, and minted from 728 to
746 AD (107 to 125 AH) in Wasit, and two coins belonged to
the period of Walid or Yazid or Ibrahim bin Walid, and been
minted in 747 AD (126 AH). Lastly, one coin belonged to the
Marwan ibn Muhammad era, minted in 749 AD (128 AH) in
Wasit (Figure 2).
6.2 Experiment
To measure the elemental concentration of the specimens, a
proton beam with an energy of 2 MeV and current of about
2–3 nanoamperes was used. The required proton beam was
produced by the 3 MV Van de Graaf accelerator available in
the Physics and Accelerator Research Institute. The energy of
X-rays was measured by a Si (Li) detector, which was located
at 135 degrees to the descending beam; the multichannel
system then displayed the obtained spectrum. In addition,
GUPIX software was used to quantitatively measure the
constituent elements of the specimens (Maxwell
et al.
, 1989).
In this study, the standard Merck Art.2700 was used for
calibration. Overall uncertainty for the PIXE method was 5%
for major elements; 5–10% for minor elements, and 15% for
trace elements. The results of this study are shown in Table 1.
7. Results and Discussion
In this study, coins of the Umayyad Caliphs, which had
been minted in diferent mints, were examined. The coins
belonging to the Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik and Walid ibn
Abd al-Malik periods were the most frequent ones among
the studied coins, while Wasit was the most active mint.
From among the 42 silver coins under study, 32 were minted
between 706 to 749 AD (85 to 128 AH) in Wasit mint.
The amount of silver in these coins varies from 86.13% to
90.92% (Table 1). The lowest amount of silver belonged to
coin numbered 41, which was minted in 747 AD (126 AH)
in the period of one of the three Umayyad caliphs, namely
Walid ibn Yazid, Yazid ibn Walid, and Ibrahim bin Walid.
The highest amount of silver in these 42 coins belongs
to the coins minted during the periods of Walid ibn Abd
al-Malik and Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, when the Umayyad
government was at its zenith. The study of these coins shows
that various mints, except for a few ones, have minted coins
with a clear weight (
i.e.
2.8 grams), which is indicative of
a strong surveillance system over the activity of the mints.
This study shows that a large fuctuation can be observed
in the weight of coins pertaining to the Abd al-Malik ibn
Marwan period. The coin numbered 1, minted in Basra in
703 AD (82 AH), weighs 2.5 grams, and coin numbered 2,
minted in 706 AD (85 AH), weighs 2.3 grams.The amount of
silver content in these two coins also ranges from 87.29% to
88.03% (Table 1). The fuctuations in the weight and amount
of silver in these two coins can be attributed to the political
situation of this period. At that time, the country was in
severe chaos: the period when Abd al-Malik reached power
and could empower the Umayyad government.
The amount of gold in the studied coins is between 0.28%
and 0.91%, and the average gold in these coins is 0.58%.
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71
Table 1.
Available elements in coins of the Umayyad era.
CaliphMint
Weight
MnTiSPAlSiClCaPbZnAuAgCu
Fe
NiNo
Abd al
–
Malik ibn Marwan
Basra
2.5
––
0.52
––
1.171.361.35
0.89
–
0.53
87.296.19
0.70
–
1
Abd al
–
Malik ibn Marwan
Wasit
2.3
––––
0.40
1.12
5.200.350.48
–
0.6888.030.660.08
–
2
Walid ibn Abd al
–
MalikDamascus2.8
–––––
1.29
0.530.65
1.36
–
0.4190.95
4.71
0.10
–
3
Walid ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––
1.06
–
0.531.030.490.67
–
0.5690.545.08
–
0.04
4
Walid ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
––
1.24
–
0.560.950.930.480.39
–
0.5190.734.090.12
–
5
Walid ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.7
–––––
1.02
5.28
0.640.67
–
0.3990.05
1.72
0.150.08
6
Walid ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–
0.070.330.340.730.060.020.310.57
–
0.5290.58
5.61
0.780.08
7
Walid ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
––––
0.420.700.940.960.82
–
0.4490.92
4.54
0.210.05
8
Walid ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.9
––––
0.20
1.22
1.200.350.48
–
0.6890.03
5.66
0.08
–
9
Walid ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
0.06
–
0.52
––
1.17
1.30
1.35
0.890.070.5390.29
3.19
0.63
–
10
Walid ibn Abd al
–
MalikDarabgerd2.8
––––––
0.510.530.65
–
0.52
93.654.14
––
11
Walid ibn Abd al
–
MalikKerman2.7
––
0.92
––
0.260.73
–
0.78
–
0.76
91.764.76
0.13
–
12
Walid ibn Abd al
–
MalikMerv2.8
–––
1.11
–
0.620.360.632.10
–
0.44
86.498.14
0.09
–
13
Walid ibn Abd al
–
MalikMerv2.8
––
0.46
––
1.90
1.34
1.10
1.49
–
0.72
86.136.64
0.190.03
14
Walid ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
1.29
0.830.951.06
–
0.7190.35
4.71
0.10
–
15
Walid ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
0.790.530.75
1.46
–
0.9190.65
4.76
0.15
–
16
Walid ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
0.800.520.78
1.41
–
0.8890.62
4.79
0.12
–
17
Walid ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
0.720.610.721.60
–
0.7790.71
4.62
0.18
–
18
Sulayman ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.6
–––––
0.700.620.68
1.71
–
0.6690.52
4.89
0.22
–
19
Sulayman ibn Abd al
–
MalikDamascus2.8
0.05
––––
0.620.650.700.720.170.6190.76
5.52
0.20
–
20
Umar ibn Abd al
–
Aziz
Basra
2.8
––––––
0.530.510.52
–
0.6590.14
7.65
––
21
Umar ibn Abd al
–
Aziz
Basra
2.8
––––––
0.500.540.62
–
0.5590.65
7.14
––
22
Umar ibn Abd al
–
AzizDamascus2.8
–––––
1.53
0.290.951.06
–
0.4190.95
4.71
0.10
–
23
Yazid bin Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
––––
0.120.403.200.350.68
–
0.4890.03
3.66
0.08
–
24
Hisham ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––
1.06
–
0.531.030.490.67
–
0.5690.515.08
–
0.04
25
Hisham ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
0.490.800.530.660.200.5790.08
6.54
0.100.03
26
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Hisham ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
0.890.420.510.70
–
0.5390.28
6.49
0.110.07
27
Hisham ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
0.820.490.480.68
–
0.2890.55
6.51
0.140.05
28
Hisham ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
0.900.420.530.64
–
0.3290.74
6.34
0.090.02
29
Hisham ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
0.590.620.640.82
–
0.5290.52
6.11
0.120.0630
Hisham ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.7
–––––
0.520.690.620.72
–
0.6290.11
6.52
0.140.06
31
Hisham ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
0.890.400.480.67
–
0.5690.28
6.54
0.150.03
32
Hisham ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
0.420.890.510.53
–
0.7090.49
6.28
0.110.07
33
Hisham ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
0.490.820.460.28
–
0.6890.51
6.55
0.160.05
34
Hisham ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
0.420.900.530.64
–
0.3290.34
6.74
0.090.02
35
Hisham ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.6
–––––
0.620.640.590.83
–
0.5190.11
6.52
0.120.06
36
Hisham ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
0.690.620.520.72
–
0.6290.31
6.32
0.140.06
37
Hisham ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
1.06
1.56
0.490.56
–
0.6790.585.040.04
–
38
Hisham ibn Abd al
–
Malik
Wasit
2.8
–––––
1.031.090.990.47
–
0.7690.425.020.140.08
39
Walid ibn Yazid; Yazidibn Walid;
Ibrahim ibn Walid
Wasit
2.8
–––
1.10
–
0.650.630.362.10
–
0.44
86.148.49
0.09
–
40
Walid ibn Yazid; Yazidibn Walid;
Ibrahim ibn Walid
Wasit
2.8
––
0.90
––
1.46
1.10
1.311.49
–
0.72
86.136,64
0.190.03
41
Marwan ibn Muhammad
Wasit
2.8
––
0.36
––
1.521.17
1.700.53
–
0.89
86.197.29
0.35
–
42
Table 1.
Available elements in coins of the Umayyad era. (
continuation
)
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73
Table 2.
Distribution of elements in the silver coins of the Sassanid period (Khademi Nadooshan and Khazaie, 2011, p.104)
CuCaFeAuPbAgCoin NoKing nameMint House
2.583
0.48400.690
93.8331PiruzIstakhr
1.289
0.681
2.13
0.9520
81.3712PiruzArdeshirkhoreh
1.326
0.947
7.188
0.7140
82.5313
Belash
Ardeshirkhoreh
1.045
1.378
0.30.9410
93.7874KavadIstakhr
6.455
1.904
3.524
0072.083
5KavadIstakhr
3.375
0.8990.2860.874090.527
6KavadArdeshirkhoreh
9.7244.133
0.1820.457085.504
7KavadDarabgird
2.4481.47
00.883092.084
8KavadIstakhr
1.285.244
0.2780.7560
83.1769KavadDarabgird
4.3371.778
0.9210.2750
78.865
10
KavadDarabgird
3.088
12.829
0.4250.8450
77.63311KavadArdeshirkhoreh
3.1746.187
0.5910.689080.923
12Xusro IRamhormuz
2.652
000.8720
95.7913Xusro IIstakhr
9.5784.321
00.6860
77.68814Xusro I
Bishapur
0.579
11.1111.136
0.5950.5773.093
15Hormuz IV
Bishapur
5.3242.732
00.6430.709
77.49316Xusru IIIstakhr
1.347
0.770.22300.88
89.28517Xusro IIIstakhr
0.821
1.721
00.9240
83.11318Xusro IIEcbatana
1.98
0
1.112
0.7370
83.94819Xusro IIArdeshirkhoreh
1.7932.371
00.8790
86.283
20
Xusro IISistan
3.135
2.08701.033089.071
21Xusro IISistan
3.992
0000
92.89222Kavad IIEcbatana
2.134
000.6970
95.31923Kavad IIIran
1.305
2.438
0.2490.758090.343
24Ardeshir IIIIstakhr
1.855
0.99500.7610
87.68225Ardeshir III
Bishapur
5.8010.5270.3260.7480.782
83.15426Yazdgird IIISistan
Since an amount of gold between 0.2% and 1.5% represents
the probable use of Cerussite ore in the minting of coins
(Meyers, 1979; Sodaei
et al.
, 2013), the amount of gold in
the studied coins shows that Cerussite ore had been used in
their minting. Study of the silver coins minted in the mints of
the Sassanid era shows that Cerussite ores were used to mint
these coins (Tables 2 and 3).
On the other hand, a look at the carat of the Sassanid
coins shows that these coins, except for those coins of
periods when the state had no political and economic
stability, enjoyed a high carat and the amount of silver in
them sometimes reached above 98% (Hajivaliei
et al.
, 2008;
Sodaei
et al.
, 2013; Khademi Nadooshan and Khazaie,
2011; Ben Abdelouaheda
et al.
, 2010). A similar situation
is also observed in the Umayyad era in that the Umayyads
could mint high-carat coins whose purity sometimes
reached 90.95%, while coins with carats below 90% belong
to the periods of the Umayyads’ decline and of internal
conficts in their government. For example, Abd al-Malik
ibn Marwan came to power when the Umayyads’ caliphate
was on the verge of collapse, and his minted coins at this
time were below 90%, but when the situation became better
after his reforms, then the carat of coins increased to more
than 90%; another example belongs to the late period of
the Umayyads, when three caliphs (“kings”) came to power
during just one year, and the carat of silver coins dropped
again.
In Figure 3, the distribution of gold, silver, and lead
elements in Umayyad coins has been illustrated using Dplot
software. This chart shows that there was no single ore
deposit that was used in the minting of the studied coins,
and it is possible to divide the coins into one main group,
i.e.
GA, and seven subgroups,
i.e.
GB, GC, GD, GE, GF, GG,
and GH (Figure 3).
These results show that not only was one single silver
source not used in the coins minted at Basra, Wasit,
Damascus, Merv, Darabjerd and Kerman mints, but several
sources, and that even diferent bars were used in the minting
of coins from one mint in a given period of time.
On the other hand, the best coins were minted in such
mints as Damascus and Wasit – due to their political and
commercial importance; therefore, the coins of these two
mints from 709 to 746 AD (88 to 125 AH) have always held
a carat over 90%.
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74
Table 3.
Percentage of elements present in Sasanian coins by XRF (Sodaei
et al.
, 2013, p.166). On the other hand, the best coins were minted in such mints as Damascus and Wasit – due to their political and
commercial importance; therefore, the coins of these two mints from 709 to 746 AD (88 to 125 AH) have always held a carat over 90%.
Coin No.King nameRegnal yearMint houseUnit weightWeight (gram)FeCuAgAuPbAu/Ag
1Piruz459–84IstakhrDrachma4.1
02.7±0.2
96.1±4.8
0.7±0.1
00,007
2Piruz459–84ArdeshirkhorehDrachma3.8
2.4±0.21.5±0.1
94.1±4.7
1.2±0.100,013
3
Belash
484–8ArdeshirkhorehDrachma4.1
0.71.4±0.1
89.1±4.4
0.8±0.100,009
4Kavad488–96IstakhrDrachma4
0.3±0.01.0±0.1
96.3±4.8
0.9±0.100,009
5Kavad488–96ArdeshirkhorehDrachma3.6
0.3±0.03.5±0.3
94.3±4.7
0.9±0.100,009
6Kavad488–96IstakhrDrachma4
02.5±0.2
95.1±4.8
0.9±0.100,009
7Kavad488–96DarabgirdDrachma4.1
0.3±0.01.4±0.1
91.6±4.6
0.9±0.100,01
8Kavad488–96DarabgirdDrachma4
1.0±0.15.0±0.5
97.2±4.6
0.3±0.000,003
9Kavad488–96ArdeshirkhorehDrachma4
0.5±0.0.03.8±0.3
94.7±4.7
1.0±0.100,01
10
Xusro I531–79RamhormuzDrachma4
0.7±0.13.7±0.3
97.4±4.7
0.8±0.100,008
11Xusro I531–79IstakhrDrachma3.4
02.8±0.3
96.3±4.8
0.9±0.100,009
12Xusro I531–79
Bishapur
Drachma3.5
010.9±1.0
88.3±4.4
0.8±0.100,009
13Hormuz IV
579–90Bishapur
Drachma4.1
1.4±0.10.8±0.1
96.2±4.8
0.8±0.10.8±0.10,008
14Xusro II
590
IstakhrDrachma4.1
06.3±0.6
92.1±4.6
0.7±0.10.8±0.10,008
15Xusro II
590
EcbatanaDrachma4
00.9±0.1
98.1±4.9
1.0±0.100,01
16Xusro II
590
ArdeshirkhorehDrachma4.1
1.3±0.12.3±0.2
95.7±4.8
0.8±0.100,008
17Xusro II
590
SistanDrachma4.1
02.0±0.297.0±4.81.0±0.100,01
18Xusro II
590
SistanDrachma4
03.3±0.3
95.6±4.8
1.1±0.100,011
19Kavad II629EcbatanaDrachma4.1
02.1±0.2
97.1±4.8
0.7±0.100,007
20
Ardeshir III628–9IstakhrDrachma4.2
0.2±0.01.4±0.1
97.5±4.5
0.9±0.100,009
21Ardeshir III628–9
Bishapur
Drachma4.1
02.1±0.297.0±4.80.9±0.100,009
22Yazdgird III632–51SistanDrachma4
0.3±0.06.4±0.6
91.6±4.6
0.8±0.1
0.9±0.10,009
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75
8. Conclusion
Overall, these fndings indicate that there is a direct
relationship between the political and economic status of the
Umayyad caliphate during a given period and the carat of
the coins minted at that time; for example, the coins minted
during the period of Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (82 AH) at
Basra mint are of a lower carat than the coins minted during
the period of Umar ibn Abd al-Aziz in Basra (100 and 101
AH). Furthermore, the coins minted in the late era of the
Umayyad caliphate are of lower carat since the government
was weakened over this period, such that the three caliphs
only ruled over the period of a year (126 AH).The comparison
of the amount of gold, silver, and lead in the Sassanid
coins with that of the coins minted in the Umayyad period
shows that the Sassanid mints, especially those active at the
beginning of the Islamic conquests, were still used during
the Umayyad period. The comparison of elements used
in the Umayyad coins with the elements used in Sasanian
coins shows that the technology of extracting and minting of
silver in the Umayyad period did not difer from that of the
Sasanian period. The economic prosperity of the time, the
strong monitoring system over the activities of their mints,
the availability of good reserves of silver, and the presence
of silver ore of high purity, ensured that the Umayyad coins
enjoyed a very good carat. In this regard, Damascus served
as the capital, while Wasit enjoyed commercial and military
importance; thus, the mints of these two cities managed to
mint the coins with the highest carat.
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image/svg+xml