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191
IX/2/2018
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
Early Arrival of New World Species Enriching the Biological Assemblage
of the Santi Quattro Coronati Complex (Rome, Italy)
Claudia Moricca
a,b*
, Francesca Alhaique
c
, Lia Barelli
d
, Alessia Masi
b
, Simona Morretta
e
,
Rafaele Pugliese
f
, Laura Sadori
b
a
Department of Earth Sciences, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
b
Department of Environmental Biology, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, 00185 Rome, Italy
c
Archaeozoology Laboratory, Bioarchaeology Service, Museum of Civilizations, Piazza G. Marconi 14, 00144 Rome, Italy
d
Department of History, Representation and Restoration of Architecture, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazza Borghese 9, 00186 Rome, Italy
e
Institute for Archaeological Heritage in Rome, Piazza dei Cinquecento 67, 00185 Rome, Italy
f
Independent researcher, Via del Forte Tiburtino, 120/d, 00159 Rome, Italy
1. Introduction
The discovery of the New World by Columbus in 1492
caused a series of revolutions, among which the arrival of
new vegetal and animal edible species that were gradually
introduced in the diet and habits of Europeans and soon
became a substantial part of it. The plants include
Capsicum
spp. (pepper and hot chili),
Cucurbita
spp. (gourds and
pumpkins),
Helianthus
spp. (sunfower),
Phaselous
spp.
(beans),
Solanum lycopersicum
L. (tomato),
Solanum
tuberosum
L. (potato),
Theobroma cacao
L. (cocoa),
Zea
mays
L. (corn), and the not edible, but quite important plant
from an economic point of view,
Nicotiana
spp. (tobacco).
Domestic animal species, in contrast, are much fewer:
Meleagris gallopavo
L. (turkey),
Cavia porcellus
Pallas
(guinea pig), and
Cairina moschata
L. (Muscovy duck).
Their introduction occurred at diferent times and rates as
can be highlighted by iconographic pieces of evidence,
ancient texts and recipes, as well as rare archaeobotanical
and archaeozoological fndings (Mofet, 1992; Karg, 2010;
Beneš
et al.
, 2012).
In the reconstruction of the spread of new species,
written sources play a key role. The frst indications come
from Columbus himself who, for instance, in a letter dated
November 13
th
, 1493, described maize as a type of millet.
The following year, 1494, some
Zea mays
caryopses were
delivered from Mesoamerica by Peter Martyr to Cardinal
Ascanio Maria Sforza Visconti in Rome, favouring its
distribution not only in Italy, but also in Spain, Portugal
and Turkey (Janick, 2011). The fast spread of this plant is
Volume IX ● Issue 2/2018 ● Pages 191
–203
*Corresponding author. E-mail: claudia.moricca@uniroma1.it
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 6
th
July 2018
Accepted: 4
th
December 2018
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.24916/iansa.2018.2.6
Key words:
New World species
archaeobotany
archaeozoology
disposal pit
diet
Cucurbita maxima/moschata
Cucurbita pepo
Cavia porcellus
Early Modern Age
Rome
ABSTRACT
This paper reports the archaeobotanical and archaeozoological data from a disposal pit, whose use
started after the partial closure of a staircase, and from a mortar surface within a former porch in the
Santi Quattro Coronati complex in Rome, Italy. The two contexts were in use in the Early Modern
Age, when the complex served as a cardinal seat. The element that distinguishes the Santi Quattro
Coronati from other contemporaneous contexts is the presence of New World species, until now only
hypothesized based on a letter sent by the frst resident bishop in Santo Domingo to Lorenzo Pucci, then
cardinal with the titulus of the Santi Quattro Coronati. Pumpkin seeds (
Cucurbita pepo
and
C. maxima/
moschata
) were found in the pit, while a pelvis of guinea pig (
Cavia porcellus
) was found in a former
porch. Numerous archaeobotanical remains preserved by mummifcation, identifed mostly as food,
and many archaeozoological specimens were found in the pit. Based on the data, it is hypothesized
that the pit was used mainly as a deposit for table waste. The results as a whole help towards the
investigation of the eating customs and daily habits of a Renaissance high-status clerical community.
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Claudia Moricca, Francesca Alhaique, Lia Barelli, Alessia Masi, Simona Morretta, Rafaele Pugliese, Laura Sadori: Early Arrival of New World Species Enriching
the Biological Assemblage of the Santi Quattro Coronati Complex (Rome, Italy)
192
also attested by the frst depictions of maize in Rome in
the festoons of the Loggia of Cupid and Psyche painted by
Raphael (1515–1518). The fresco shows also
Phaselous
vulgaris
,
Cucurbita maxima
and
C. pepo
(Caneva, 1992).
The latter, however, had already been represented a decade
before in the 1503–1508
Grandes Heures d’Anne de
Bretagne
, a prayer book compiled and illustrated in Touraine,
France (Paris
et al.
, 2006). The earliest fnding of
Cucurbita
moschata
/
C. maxima
appears to derive from a 15
th
–16
th
century cesspit in a Renaissance monastery in Argenta,
Northern Italy (Mercuri
et al.
, 1999); again in Northern
Italy, between 16
th
and 17
th
century, we fnd
Cucurbita
seeds
in kitchen trash of the Guerrieri Gonzaga Palace in Volta
Mantovana (Bosi, Buldrini and Rinaldi, 2015). Since the 16
th
century it appeared widespread in central Europe (Teppner,
2000).
Capsicum
spp. appears to have been immediately accepted
by Europeans because of its pungent taste, reminiscent of
the black pepper that Columbus was originally looking
for (Janick, 2011). The frst European illustrations of chili
pepper are dated to 1540 (
Codex Amphibiorum
) and, along
with other Renaissance images, indicate that hot chili was
the frst variety of
Capsicum
to be introduced.
C. annuum
seeds are attested in Europe since the 16
th
–17
th
century in
the Dutch site of Hertogenbosch (Hallavant and Ruas, 2014),
in early modern sites in Northern Poland (Karg, 2010) and
in a 17
th
–18
th
brick cesspit belonging to the college of the
Theatine order in Prague, Czech Republic (Čulíková, 2014).
Helianthus annuus
L. (sunfower) is also part of the vast
heritage acquired after the discovery of the New World.
Its frst European depiction dates to 1568 and is found in
Florum et Coronariarum
by the Flemish botanist Dodoens.
Archaeobotanical fndings of sunfower in the Old World
were found between the 15
th
and the 18
th
centuries in south-
western Germany, where also
Z
.
mays
is attested (Rösch,
1998).
The arrival of potato to Europe is attributed to Francis
Drake in association with the rescue of Roanoke colonists
(Janick, 2012). The delay in the introduction of potato
and tomato was partly due to their land of domestication,
respectively the Inca Empire, conquered by Francisco
Pizarro in 1531–1536 and the Aztec Empire, whose conquest
occurred in 1521 (Daunay, Laterrot and Janick, 2006).
Potato is frst mentioned in herbals, where an illustration is
also found, by Gerarde in 1597. Tomato is frst mentioned
in a 1544 chapter on mandrake by P. A. Matthioli (Daunay,
Laterrot and Janick, 2006). The frst illustration appears in
Fuchs’ unpublished
Vienna Codex
, painted by A. Meyer
between 1542 and 1565 (Daunay, Laterrot and Janick, 2006).
Much scepticism surrounded the consumption of both tomato
and potato due to their similarity to the poisonous mandrake
fruits and roots respectively (Janick, 2011). However, they
both soon became substantial parts of the Mediterranean diet.
Among the animals, the most important is the turkey.
This bird was likely imported to Spain in 1511 and from
there it rapidly spread all over Europe (De Grossi Mazzorin
and Epifani, 2015 and references therein). As far as Italy is
concerned, the earliest possible evidence are the stuccoes
in the Vatican Loggias made by Giovanni da Udine and
Perin del Vaga between the end of 1517 and the beginning
of 1519, but their identifcation as turkeys or peacocks is
debated. Other clearer images are found in the paintings of
Palazzo Madama by Giovanni da Udine dated to 1522–23.
Although in the beginning turkeys were only considered as
exotic animals to be exhibited by wealthy people, within
a few decades they became popular as high-status food as
evidenced, for example, by recipes in the
Singolare dottrina
by Domenico Romoli (1560) and the
Opera
by Bartolomeo
Scappi (1570). Turkey bone remains are much rarer and less
securely dated (De Grossi Mazzorin and Epifani, 2015): the
earliest identifed specimen having been found in a silo at
Muro Leccese referred to the end of the 16
th
–beginning of
17
th
century; other remains referred to the 16
th
–17
th
century
are from the Prösels/Presule castle in Alto Adige and from
the Gonzaga Palace at Volta Mantovana in Lombardy. In
Rome turkey remains were recovered at Caput Africae
(17
th
–18
th
century) and at the Crypta Balbi (18
th
century);
other specimens dated to the 17
th
and 18
th
cent. were identifed
in the Nuovo Mercato di Testaccio (Rome), possibly
indicating that by this time the species was no longer only
the prerogative of the high classes.
Relevant for our site and for its relations with the Americas
is a letter, dated to 1519 or 1520 (Oliva, 1993) by Alessandro
Geraldini, frst resident bishop in Santo Domingo, to
Lorenzo Pucci (Arrighi, 2016), then cardinal with the titulus
of the Santi Quattro Coronati and supervisor for the Church
of the Indies in the Consistory, in which turkeys, referred to
as a
gallus
and a white
gallina
from the “
sub Aequinoctiali
plaga
”, were mentioned as a gift sent to the cardinal together
with parrots (
psittacos
) and some gods worshipped by local
indigenous populations.
The analysis of archaeobotanical and archaeozoological
data is fundamental for the reconstruction of the history
and the introduction of New World species in the European
context. These complement written sources and illustrations
in terms of the identifcation of the geographical spread of
American fora and fauna in the Old World, also taking into
consideration factors such as climate and social status. To
this purpose the chance to study bioarchaeological samples
from Early Modern age confned contexts of the Santi
Quattro Coronati in Rome is of great importance.
2. The investigated site
The Santi Quattro Coronati is an architectural complex
comprised of several blocks constructed between the
4
th
century AD and modern times. It is located in Rome (Italy)
on the Caelian Hill between the Lateran and the Colosseum
(Figure 1). Starting from 1138 AD and for the following four
centuries, the history of the monastery was strictly correlated
to that of the Umbrian Abbey of Sassovivo, of which it
represented the most important fliation, as it was the seat
of the attorney of the Roman diocesan administration and
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Claudia Moricca, Francesca Alhaique, Lia Barelli, Alessia Masi, Simona Morretta, Rafaele Pugliese, Laura Sadori: Early Arrival of New World Species Enriching
the Biological Assemblage of the Santi Quattro Coronati Complex (Rome, Italy)
193
the temporary residence of the Pope’s guests (Barelli and
Pugliese, 2012). In the 13
th
century, a portion of the complex
became part of a vast palace, meant to host the cardinal titular
of the basilica. In 1564 the complex was assigned to host the
Conservatory of the Orphan Girls, run by Augustinian Nuns,
who still guard the complex.
The complex was subjected to a series of restorations that,
through diferent archaeological campaigns, have brought
to light structures attributable to the Renaissance. These
include a closed staircase, used as a discard pit and some
layers excavated within a former arched porch (Barelli and
Pugliese, 2012).
3. Materials and methods
For the current research, two specifc contexts of this large
complex have been taken into consideration (Figure 2). One
is a discard pit excavated in 1996, under the supervision of
the architects Lia Barelli and Monica Morbidelli and the
archaeologist Rafaele Pugliese. The pit occupied the bottom
part of the staircase of the façade-tower of a vast titular
complex rebuilt under Pope Leo IV (847–855). The closure
of a door on the ground foor of the tower is attributed to
the restoration works ordered by Cardinal Carrillo (cardinal
between 1424 and 1434). This allowed for the stairwell to be
flled by waste of a varied nature in the following decades.
Such use, as highlighted by ceramics, appears to be dated
towards the end of the 15
th
century. The closure of the pit
is dated at the middle of the following century, possibly in
concomitance with the settlement of the Augustinian nuns
in 1564.
The entire fll of the bell tower has been collected and
preserved. For the current study the stratigraphic units US
3 and US 4 have been selected. Archaeobotanical remains
were separated through dry sieving, using a series of three
sieves with 5-, 2- and 1-mm meshes. A total of 28 l of
material was sieved. Each fraction was then hand-picked.
Macro-remains were counted, observed under a Leica
M205C stereo microscope (magnifcation up to 100×) and
photographed using a Leica IC80 HD camera. Combined
pictures and 3D models were obtained using Helicon Focus
(version 6.6.1 Pro). Morphological identifcation was
performed by comparing the samples against several atlases
(Cappers, Neef and Bekker, 2009; Neef
et al.
, 2012; Cappers
and Bekker, 2013) and modern reference samples.
The second context was investigated during the most
recent excavations, carried out in 2011–2012 (Barelli and
Pugliese, 2012; Masi, Sadori and Pugliese, 2012) in a former
porch (Asciutti, 2012) located in the west side of the garden
of the complex. Among the investigated layers, a surface
made of mortar (US 521) referenced to the beginning of the
17
th
century mixed with ceramic materials dated to the end
of the 16
th
century, yielded a small faunal assemblage whose
content is relevant for the present research. Traditionally,
in archaeozoological analyses the volume of the excavated
material is unknown; the remains were therefore simply
picked out from the entire flling of each layer.
The faunal assemblage – separated from the same buckets
as the plant materials as well as another small sample
handpicked during the excavation from the same discard pit,
but lacking precise stratigraphic provenience – have been
analysed. Furthermore, as mentioned before, US 521 from
the 2011–12 excavations of the former porch has also been
Figure 1.
Rome, Italy. Location map of Santi Quattro Coronati (circled in white), between the Colosseum and the Lateran Basilica.
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Claudia Moricca, Francesca Alhaique, Lia Barelli, Alessia Masi, Simona Morretta, Rafaele Pugliese, Laura Sadori: Early Arrival of New World Species Enriching
the Biological Assemblage of the Santi Quattro Coronati Complex (Rome, Italy)
194
investigated. Although the specimens are very fragmented,
the preservation condition of bone surfaces is good and
has allowed the observation and identifcation of human,
animal and other natural traces; all specimens, including
the unidentifable ones, were inspected for any such
modifcations. The age of single individuals of domestic
species was calculated based on the archaeozoological
literature (Silver, 1969; Payne, 1973; Barone, 1981; Bull
and Payne, 1982; Grigson, 1982; Barone, 1995). Given the
fragmented state of the bone specimens, it was possible to
estimate only the withers height of a horse (May, 1985).
4. Results
The infll of the discard pit from US 3 and US 4 is mostly
constituted of hay, which represents the bulk of the fnding
in which the carpological and zoological remains were
dispersed. Approximately 6,000 well-preserved fragments
of seeds and fruits, belonging to 35 taxa, mostly identifed
at species level and attributed to 18 diferent plant families
were identifed (Table 1, Figure 3). Scientifc nomenclature
follows Flora d’Italia (Pignatti, 1982) and Mabberley’s
Plant Book (Mabberley, 2008). The favourable thermo-
hygrometric conditions present in the pit allowed the
mummifcation of plant remains by desiccation, although
few wood remains were found charred. Even the most fragile
mummifed parts of plants, such as lemmas and paleas of
spikelets are preserved.
Besides the few wild and ornamental plants, the botanical
assemblages included food remains. For this study, these will
be classifed as cereals, pulses, fruit plants and vegetables/
spices. Cereals include oat (
Avena fatua
/
sterilis
), broomcorn
millet (
Panicum miliaceum
) and bread wheat
(
Triticum
cf.
aestivum
). Concerning barley (
Hordeum vulgare
)
,
only
rachises were found. In terms of pulses, faba (or broad) bean
(
Vicia faba
major) is the most numerous fnding, although pea
(
Pisum sativum
) is also present. Remains of faba beans are
Figure 2.
Plan of the architectural complex of Santi Quattro Coronati. The two contexts of retrieval are highlighted.
0 20 m
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the Biological Assemblage of the Santi Quattro Coronati Complex (Rome, Italy)
195
Table 1.
List of identifed plant and the number of remains retrieved in the pit of Santi Quattro Coronati,
where * represents the fruits estimated based on the number of retrieved fragments.
Carpological remains
US 3US 4
N%N
%
Allium cepa
L.tunic3
0.13
3
0.09
Allium cepa/sativum
basal plate
10
0.44
22
0.67
Allium sativum
L.tunic25
1.09
8
0.24
Avena fatua/sterilis
spikelet
0
0
10
0.30
Cannabis sativa
L.achene2
0.09
12
0.36
Castanea sativa
Mill.pericarp63
2.75
130
3.93
Citrus
sp.pericarp 14
0.61
26
0.79
Coriandrum sativum
L.mericarp6
0.26
1
0.03
Corylus avellana
L.pericarp5*
0.22
5*
0.15
Cucumis melo
L.seed41
1.79
76
2.30
Cucurbita maxima/moschata
seed
8
0.35
27
0.82
Cucurbita pepo
L. seed2
0.09
6
0.18
Cupressus sempervirens
L.cone1
0.04
0
0
Ficus carica
L.achene4
0.17
0
0
Foeniculum vulgare
Mill.mericarp3
0.13
14
0.42
Hordeum vulgare
L.rachis19
0.83
9
0.27
Juglans regia
L.pericarp
10*
0.44
17*
0.51
Lagenaria siceraria
Standl seed5
0.22
0
0
Malus
sp.seed1
0.04
1
0.03
Medicago
sp.legume49
2.14
177
5.36
Olea europea
L.endocarp54
2.35
96
2.90
Panicum miliaceum
L.
foret
17
0.74
33
1.00
Panicum
sp.
foret
44
1.92
188
5.69
caryopsis
0
0
1
0.03
Pastinaca sativa
L.mericarp
380
16.56
526
15.92
Piper nigrum
L.drupe
8
0.35
4
0.12
Pisum sativum
L.seed5
0.22
11
0.33
Prunus avium/cerasus
endocarp
28
1.22
47
1.42
Prunus domestica
L.endocarp26
1.13
14
0.42
Prunus persica
(L.) Batschendocarp3
0.13
5
0.15
Punica granatum
L.
seed26
1.13
83
2.51
exocarp13
0.57
15
0.45
Ranunculus repens
L.achene4
0.17
21
0.64
Rubus fruticosus
aggr.endocarp1
0.04
3
0.09
Torilis arvensis
(Huds) Linkmericarp
0
0
4
0.12
Triticum
cf.
aestivum
L.
caryopsis2
0.09
0
0
rachis425
18.53
623
18.85
Vicia faba
L.
majorseedcoat
385
16.78
63
1.91
Vitis vinifera
L.
pip
187
8.15
377
11.41
pedicel
389
16.96
617
18.67
tendril22
0.96
20
0.61
Apiaceae undif.
mericarp4
0.17
10
0.30
Total2294
100
3305
100
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Claudia Moricca, Francesca Alhaique, Lia Barelli, Alessia Masi, Simona Morretta, Rafaele Pugliese, Laura Sadori: Early Arrival of New World Species Enriching
the Biological Assemblage of the Santi Quattro Coronati Complex (Rome, Italy)
196
present only in the form of teguments. A wide variety of fruit
plants, used also as vegetables, was retrieved. These include
olives (
Olea europaea
), cherries (
Prunus avium/cerasus
),
plums (
Prunus domestica
), peaches (
Prunus persica
),
blackberries,
Rubus fruticosus
, grapes (
Vitis vinifera
),
pomegranate (
Punica granatum
), citrus fruits (
Citrus
sp.),
pumpkins (
Cucurbita maxima/moschata
and
C. pepo
), melon
(
Cucumis melo
), calabash (
Lagenaria siceraria
), apples
(
Malus
sp.), fgs (
Ficus carica
), hazelnuts (
Corylus avellana
),
chestnuts (
Castanea sativa
) and walnuts (
Juglans regia
).
Finally, also various plants used as vegetables or spices were
attested in the examined sediments. These include parsnip
(
Pastinaca sativa
), garlic (
Allium sativum
), onion (
Allium
cepa
), coriander (
Coriandrum sativum
), fennel (
Foeniculum
vulgare
), black pepper (
Piper nigrum
) and hemp (
Cannabis
sativa
). Additionally, the weeds spreading hedgeparsley
(
Torilis arvensis
), creeping buttercup (
Ranunculus repens
)
and alfalfa (
Medicago
sp.) were found. Cypress (
Cupressus
sempervirens
), an ornamental species, was also attested
(with a cone) in the Santi Quattro Coronati pit.
Cucurbita
seeds are very similar among species, but
they also present a vast range of intraspecifc variations.
However,
C. maxima
is more distinctive (Mofett, 1995).
Unfortunately, due both to the conservation state of Apiaceae
seeds and the similarities among diferent species, it was not
possible to identify all Apiaceae remains. For this reason, the
presence of other Apiaceae, such as dill and parsley cannot
be excluded.
The faunal assemblage from the discard pit includes
a total of 582 specimens mostly from US 3 and US 4
(Table 2). Land gastropods consist mainly of Helicidae,
especially the chocolate-band snail (
Eobania vermiculata
)
and the garden snail (
Cornu aspersum
)
.
Marine bivalves are
represented mostly by the wedge clam (
Donax trunculus
)
and a few remains of common cockle (
Cerastoderma edule
).
Fragments of crustacean exoskeleton were recovered in both
layers and fsh remains, still under study, are very common.
Among the birds, only chicken (
Gallus gallus
) and
pigeon (
Columba livia/oenas
) have been surely identifed; in
addition, eggshell fragments have also been recovered.
In the microfauna there are mainly remains of rodents (
e.g.
Rattus rattus
) as well as some small reptiles (Lacertilia).
Besides the bone specimens reported in Table 2, two
mummifed “rats” were recovered in US 3.
Figure 3.
Santi Quattro Coronati (Rome): plant macro remains. a.
Cannabis sativa
, fruit; b.
Vicia faba
, seedcoat with hilum; c.
Avena fatua/sterilis
,
spikelet; d.
Triticum
cf.
aestivum
, rachis; e.
Citrus
sp., pericarp; f.
Cucurbita pepo
, seed; g.
Castanea sativa
, pericarp.
0 2 mm
0 1 cm
0 4 mm
0 1 cm
0 4 mm
0 1 cm
0 2 mm
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Claudia Moricca, Francesca Alhaique, Lia Barelli, Alessia Masi, Simona Morretta, Rafaele Pugliese, Laura Sadori: Early Arrival of New World Species Enriching
the Biological Assemblage of the Santi Quattro Coronati Complex (Rome, Italy)
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Lagomorphs are represented by a mandible fragment
belonging to a young individual. A single
Felis catus
phalanx
was recovered in US 3, but the same layer also yielded the
complete mummy of a cat. The only horse remains is a
complete left metatarsal belonging to an individual about
149 cm tall at the withers.
Among the three main domestic mammals the domestic
pig
Sus domesticus
is the dominant species with a minimum
number of 10 individuals ranging from very young ones
(0–6 months) to over 4 years old, but more than half of them
are less than 18 months old. There are at least two males
and two females. Ovicaprines are the second domestic
taxon
as number of specimens, referable to a minimum of
9 individuals most of them adult and even senile. Cattle is
very rare, represented by a minimum of 3 individuals, one of
them 6–12 months old while the other two are adults.
The proportions of skeletal fragments attributed to size
groups refects the abundance in the identifed species. In
this research “small mammal” would comprise lagomorphs,
cat, and other animals of similar size; sheep, goat, and pig,
are considered “medium-sized mammal”; cattle and horse,
are “large mammal”. All the rest of the specimens were
completely unidentifable.
The faunal assemblage from US 521 (Table 3) includes
many intrusive small gastropods (
e.g.
Pomatia elegans
,
Rumina decollata
) and very few Helicidae which may have
the same origin, although their exploitation as food cannot
be excluded. The domestic species recognized are mainly
pig and ovicaprines, each represented by a single prime adult
individual; because of fragmentation, it has been possible to
assign larger animals only to size group and not to species.
A single cat calcaneum attests to the presence of this feline.
Finally, the assemblage included also an almost complete
left pelvis (Figure 4) attributed to guinea pig (
Cavia porcellus
).
Table 2.
Faunal remains recovered in the discard pit (NISP=Number of Identifed Specimens; for taxa with * “1” indicates just presence;
N/A materials from the pit lacking precise US information).
Species
US 3US 4N/ATOTAL
NISP%NISP%NISP%NISP%
Land gastropods16
6.8
14
4.5
4
11.1
34
5.8
Marine bivalves26
11.0
31
10.0
2
5.6
59
10.1
Crustacea*1
0.4
1
0.3
2
0.3
Pisces
41
17.3
44
14.2
85
14.6
Aves
18
7.6
15
4.9
33
5.7
Aves eggshell*1
0.4
1
2.8
2
0.3
Gallus gallus
L.6
2.5
2
5.6
8
1.4
Columba livia/oenas
1
0.3
1
0.2
Microfauna15
6.3
16
5.2
1
2.8
32
5.5
Lagomorpha
1
2.8
1
0.2
Felis catus
L.1
0.4
1
0.2
Equus caballus
L.
1
2.8
1
0.2
Sus domesticus
Erxleben
8
3.4
18
5.8
15
41.7
41
7.0
Ovis vel Capra
12
5.1
16
5.2
6
16.7
34
5.8
Bos taurus
L.1
0.4
3
8.3
4
0.7
Small mammal1
0.4
1
0.2
Medium mammal23
9.7
42
13.6
65
11.2
Large mammal3
1.3
9
2.9
12
2.1
Unidentifable
64
27.0
102
33.0
166
28.5
Total237
100
309
100
36
100
582
100
Table 3.
Faunal remains recovered in US 521
(NISP=Number of Identifed Specimens).
Species
US 521
NISP%
Land gastropods2321.1
Pisces
1
0.9
Aves1
0.9
Cavia porcellus
Pallas
1
0.9
Felis catus
L.1
0.9
Sus domesticus
Erxleben76.4
Ovis vel Capra
43.7
Medium mammal1917.4
Large mammal3
2.8
Unidentifable
49
45.0
Total
109100
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Claudia Moricca, Francesca Alhaique, Lia Barelli, Alessia Masi, Simona Morretta, Rafaele Pugliese, Laura Sadori: Early Arrival of New World Species Enriching
the Biological Assemblage of the Santi Quattro Coronati Complex (Rome, Italy)
198
The specimen was identifed on the basis of morphology,
presenting among the other features a characteristic notch
on the neck of the ischium, (Ijzereef, 1978; Pigiére
et al.
,
2012). Measurements too (SH 4.3 mm, LAR 6.0 mm,
following von den Driesch, 1976) are comparable to data
from archaeological and reference specimens (Pigiére
et al.
,
2012; Van Neer, pers. comm.)
5. Discussion
Archaeobotanical and archaeozoological studies of Late
Medieval/Early Modern Age contexts are quite rare in central
Italy. A great help in the survey of plant remains is provided
by BRAIN (Botanical Records of Archaeobotany Italian
Network:
https://brainplants.unimore.it/; Mercuri
et al
.,
2015), an interactive database including archaeological sites
with microscopic and macroscopic remains, which allowed
the authors to gain awareness of fve Medieval-Renaissance
sites in central Italy where carpological analyses were
performed.
In the studied pit, without considering the hay, the plant
and animal remains (seeds, fruits, eggs, shells, teeth, and
bones) mostly consist of a series of edible species, likely
belonging to the diet of the inhabitants of the Santi Quattro
Coronati complex. Ornamental and wild plants, such as
cypress and alfalfa, are present as well. The plant and animal
assemblages provide an overview of the eating habits in a
cardinal’s residence of the 16
th
century in Rome.
The archaeobotanical remains did not present prominent
diferences in qualitative or quantitative terms. Only fve
species (
Torilis arvensis
,
Lagenaria siceraria
,
Cupressus
sempervirens
,
Avena fatua/sterilis
and
Ficus carica
) were
found in one depositional layer but were absent in the other.
The number of refuse items of cereals and pulses is
higher than in many other contemporaneous deposits (
e.g.
Mofet, 1992; Bandini Mazzanti
et al.
, 2005; Bosi
et al.
,
2009) (Table 1). This richness deserves particular attention.
A noticeable part of the Poaceae remains is from the hay
and consists of non-edible parts (Table 1) such as rachises,
leaves, and culms. Hay could have been used either as
palliasse
(bedding material) or to dampen bad odours and
preserve foods (Barelli and Pugliese, 1996). Nonetheless,
the hay assemblage provides information regarding the food
plants available in the area. A clear example is provided
by barley, for which only rachises are present. It is worth
mentioning that two main clusters of millets were found in
the pit. One, characterised by a rounder shape, was identifed
as
Panicum miliaceum
. The other one, which included more
elongated forets was not identifed at a species level and will
be the subject of further studies.
Parsnip mericarps represent the main fnding of the present
study. The presence of fruit remains for a plant whose roots
are eaten, fnds an easy explanation.
Parsnip roots were in
fact used as a cooked vegetable and as animal fodder starting
from Roman times (Zohary, Hopf and Weiss, 2012). They are
usually harvested after a frost, which results in an increase in
sweetness (Cain
et al.
, 2010). As with carrots, parsnip roots
are harvested and often stored along with their stem and
leaves (Gray, Steckel and Ward, 1985). The presence of the
fruit (ripening in autumn) is evidence of a late harvest. This
factor allows for the documentation of a plant which could
have otherwise been neglected.
The Fabaceae assemblage represents ca. 16% of the
botanical carpological remains, including also alfalfa, a
plant not directly related to food consumption. It was either
part of the hay or represents the remains of fodder. Faba
beans and peas were also abundant. Seed coats of the former
(Figure 3b) represent a signifcant fnding: also in terms
of dietary habits. Being sourer than the rest of the seed, it
appears as if they were being discarded on purpose, as it is
also commonly done in modern times. The “Mirror Pit” in
northern Italy (Bandini Mazzanti
et al.
, 2005) has registered
the presence, even if very low, of both legumes.
Grape represents one of the main fndings analogous to
other contemporaneous pits in Italy (
e.g.
Ferrara-Emilia
Romagna: Bandini Mazzanti
et al.
, 2005; Bandini Mazzanti
and Bosi, 2007; Bosi
et al.
, 2009; Latium: Clark
et al.
, 2009)
and in England (
e.g.
London: Giorgi, 1997). Fresh fruit
consumption is hypothesised for the fnd in Rome, where
more pedicels than pips were found. A similar consideration
can be made for the olive endocarps, which are found intact
and do not show signs of pressing, suggesting their use as
table food.
The very low concentration of fg achenes and of
blackberry stones, generally among the most numerous
Figure 4.
Santi Quattro Coronati (Rome): the
Cavia porcellus
pelvis from US 521.
0 1 cm
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Claudia Moricca, Francesca Alhaique, Lia Barelli, Alessia Masi, Simona Morretta, Rafaele Pugliese, Laura Sadori: Early Arrival of New World Species Enriching
the Biological Assemblage of the Santi Quattro Coronati Complex (Rome, Italy)
199
fndings in contemporaneous deposits (Giorgi, 1997;
Bandini Mazzanti
et al.
, 2005; Bandini Mazzanti and Bosi,
2007; Karg, 2007; Bosi, Mercuri and Bandini Mazzanti,
2009; Sadori
et al.
, 2013; Mariotti Lippi
et al.
, 2015), fnds a
parallel in the “Ducal Pit” (Bosi
et al.
, 2009), characterised
as a deposit of table waste, rather than a latrine. Analogously
to most pits contemporaneous (Giorgi, 1997) to the current
case study, Rosaceae remains are a fnding worthy of note
in the Santi Quattro Coronati pit, with a prevalence of the
genus
Prunus
, represented mostly by plums, sour or sweet
cherries, together with peaches. Remains of apples here are
few (Table 1), while these were found to be more common at
other sites (Bandini Mazzanti
et al.
, 2005; Bosi
et al.
, 2009;
Badura
et al.
, 2015).
Melon seeds were also found in the Roman complex. These
constituted a common fnding in the pits of the Ferrara area
in Italy (Bandini Mazzanti
et al.
, 2005; Bosi
et al.
, 2009) and
were also retrieved in two Early Modern cesspits in Prague
(Beneš
et al.
, 2012), representing an exception for central
European sites. The use of melon in Sardinia, Italy, has been
documented since the Late Bronze Age (Sabato
et al.
, 2017).
Remains of Rutaceae peels were also found but were
identifable only to the genus level.
Citrus
remains were rare
in other contemporaneous deposits, being retrieved in the
form of seeds and a leaf in the 16
th
–17
th
century inflling of
the Vladislav Hall of Prague Castle, where they appear to be
clearly associated to social status (Beneš
et al.
, 2012).
Citrus
seeds were also found in deposits in early modern London
on rare occasions (Giorgi, 1997). The peels found in the
Santi Quattro Coronati pit represent a unique fnd, as such
parts usually undergo a fast process of degradation.
Citrus
remains are in fact generally scarce and consist mostly of
seeds. Furthermore,
Citrus
taxa are hard to distinguish
among each other due to a sexual compatibility within the
members of the genus, which favours natural hybridisation
(Pagnoux
et al.
, 2013).
The fnding of pomegranate at the Santi Quattro Coronati
complex is relevant and it is constituted by both seeds and
exocarps. Access to luxury foods and exotics can be key
elements to the identifcation of the social status of the
inhabitants of the complex, being found only in middle to
upper-class deposits (Bandini Mazzanti and Bosi, 2007; Bosi
et al.
, 2009).
Nuts represent a signifcant fnding in the Santi Quattro
Coronati pit. Walnuts, chestnuts and hazelnuts represent a
large part of the dietary remains. Among these, the most
striking fnds are represented by chestnut (Figure 3g), with
an exceptional preservation of the hairy episperm.
Walnuts and chestnuts were found in most Late Medieval/
Renaissance pits of Emilia Romagna (Bandini Mazzanti and
Bosi, 2007). Hazelnuts, probably collected from the wild,
were also found in England (Mofet, 1992; Giorgi, 1997).
The extensive use of garlic dates back to ancient Roman
times, when this plant was used in a wide number of food
preparations and for healing purposes (Tattelman, 2005).
Charlemagne ordered the cultivation of garlic and onions in
all royal gardens (Castelletti, Castiglioni and Rottoli, 2001).
The assemblage of Apiaceae, used mostly as food
favourings, corresponds to that of other parallel cases. Fennel
and coriander were found in Ferrara (Bandini Mazzanti
et al.
,
2005; Bosi
et al
., 2009), in the Hanseatic towns of northern
Europe (Karg, 2007) and in Dudley, England (Mofet, 1992).
Fennel could have been collected wild, although it is possible
that it was cultivated for convenience. In contrast, coriander
was necessarily cultivated (Mofet, 1992).
Despite its usual association to textile production, the
presence of hemp is most probably correlated to its use in
Late Medieval and Early modern recipes (Korber-Grohne,
1987; Beneš
et al.
, 2002). Hemp seeds are still used in many
recipes nowadays, but also because of their excellent content
of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids (Rodriguez-Leyva
and Pierce, 2010). Hemp has been retrieved in other pits in
Ferrara (Bandini Mazzanti
et al.
, 2005; Bosi
et al.
, 2009), in
England (Mofet, 1992), in a wooden sewage Renaissance
tunnel in Prague (Beneš
et al.
, 2012) and in several Middle
Age and Early modern drains and drainage channels, ditches,
pits and wells in Denmark (Karg, 2007).
The composition of the faunal assemblage of the two
layers (US 3 and US 4) in the discard pit is very similar.
Land gastropods, including mainly Helicidae, may represent
either intrusive species or items of food refuse, but even
in the latter case they were not a signifcant part of the
diet. Fish is abundant as would be expected in a religious
context, although in Rome alimentary rules also afected lay
people (D’Amelia, 1975); crustaceans, as well as marine
molluscs, are probably part of the same meatless diet. The
remains of birds together with eggshell fragments, indicate
the exploitation of this class of animals as well as of their
products.
The microfauna, small rodents and reptiles, can be
considered as intrusive elements or pests discarded in the pit
together with the other waste products. The cat
was often used
not just as a pet, but mainly for pest control and, apparently,
after death its carcass was considered as “common” garbage.
The horse specimen shows some scrape marks along
the shaft, possibly traces from manufacturing, suggesting
that craftwork activities were also performed at the site.
Many of the domestic mammals show cuts and chop marks
indicating, as expected, that they represent food debris.
Only a few remains are burnt, but such modifcation appears
accidental and not directly related to cooking activities
because the combustion is not localized, but present over
the whole specimen. This may suggest that boiling or
stewing rather than roasting were probably the main cooking
procedures. Carnivore traces on the bones are more abundant
than anthropic modifcations and were produced mainly by
small predators, such as cats, suggesting a close relationship
between humans and felines.
The faunal assemblage from the discard pit represents
a mixture of food debris and other waste (
e.g.
cats and
rats) and does not show peculiarities in the taxonomic
composition and/or any identifed modifcations which may
clearly suggest a high-status residence (
e.g.
presence of more
abundant or peculiar wild species or of many very young
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the Biological Assemblage of the Santi Quattro Coronati Complex (Rome, Italy)
200
individuals for most domestic
taxa
). This is in contrast to
the indication provided by the plant remains; however,
the faunal assemblage may give some hints about the diet
not only of the cardinal and his entourage, but also of the
servants working in the palace.
Other Italian late medieval-early modern contexts, such
as the Castello di Manzano (Cherasco, Cuneo – Bedini,
1995), Castello di Rafenstein (San Genesio, Bolzano –
Eccher and Tecchiati, 2014), Palazzo Vitelleschi (Tarquinia,
Viterbo – Clark
et al.
, 1989), Castello di Santa Severa (Santa
Marinella, Roma – Cerilli Fatucci, 2016), Castello Baglioni
(Grafgnano, Viterbo – Alhaique
et al.
, in press), and the
Palazzo del Principe (Muro Leccese, Lecce – De Grossi
Mazzorin and Nocera, 2005), show more clear evidence for
luxury elements also in the fauna, possibly because such
contexts are not strictly related to religious communities.
Except for the presence of the guinea pig, the faunal
sample retrieved in US 521 does not show peculiarities and
includes both food debris and intrusive elements such as
small land gastropods. Chop and cut marks were detected
on the remains of the main domestic animals, as well as
on specimens attributed only to one size group. Very few
remains are burnt or display traces of carnivore activity.
5.1 New World species at the Santi Quattro Coronati
complex
The Santi Quattro Coronati complex is characterised by
the presence of New World species, both in terms of fora
(
Cucurbita
sp.) and fauna (
Cavia porcellus
).
As far as plant species are concerned, the genus
Cucurbita
,
native of South America and imported to Europe only after the
discovery of America in 1492 (Teppner, 2004), was retrieved.
They got so well established in the Old World, that it was not
until the 20
th
century that botanists realised that they were in
fact original of the New World (Whitaker, 1947).
The genus
Cucurbita
includes fve cultivated species:
Cucurbita fcifolia
Bouchè,
C. maxima
Duchesne,
C. moschata
Duchesne,
C. argyrospema
Huber and
C. pepo
L.
(Mofett, 1995). In the pit, seeds of
C. maxima/moschata
and
C. pepo
, the most popular in Europe, were found.
Many doubts are placed regarding the route through which
these species reached Europe during the 16
th
century. It was
thought that
C. pepo
was introduced to Asia before arriving
in Europe (Mofett, 1995), although both iconographical
and archaeobotanical evidence seems to reveal otherwise.
The plant iconography of a prayer book traces back the
introduction of
Cucurbita
species in Europe to at least
1503–1508 (Paris
et al.
, 2006). Most archaeobotanical
studies carried out on
Cucurbita
were performed on
American material (Smith, 1968). Seeds constitute the most
common type of macro-remains found and they are usually
preserved through desiccation, charring or waterlogging
(
e.g.
Decker and Newsom, 1988; Smith, 1997; Lema,
Capparelli and Pochettino, 2008). In terms of micro-remains,
phytoliths prevail (
e.g.
Piperno, Andres and Stothert, 2000;
Hart, Thompson and Brumbach, 2003; Piperno and Stothert,
2003; Hart, Brumbach and Lusteck, R., 2007).
The archaeobotanical evidence is, however, quite limited
and presents a wide dispersion in area over Europe and
northern Africa starting from the 16
th
century. The Santi
Quattro Coronati fnd helps to confrm such an early
introduction to Italy, heretofore hypothesized only looking
at the festoons of the Loggia of Cupid and Psyche in Rome
(Caneva, 1992).
Cucurbita
seeds have been retrieved mostly
in post-Medieval castles and urban sites, not necessarily
associated with high status (Mofett, 1995). Despite being
exotic, they soon became particularly valuable to people
who did not have access to a wide variety of fresh food
(Parkinson, 1904), due to their good preservation qualities.
The earliest fnds of
Cucurbita moschata
/
C. maxima
in
northern Italy appear in Argenta (15
th
–16
th
century – Barbi
et al.
, 1998) and in Volta Mantovana (16
th
–17
th
century –
Bosi, Buldrini and Rinaldi, 2015). The presence of
Cucurbita
sp. was attested in the 17
th
century in Libya at the ancient
town of Garama (Pelling, 2003). Seeds of
C. pepo
were
retrieved in Germany in a pit from the 16
th
–17
th
century in
Lüneburg (Wiethold, 2003) and in a deposit in Rhineland
(Knörzer and Pfanzenspuren, 1999), and in Belgium in a
17
th
century cesspit at the Arme Klaren site (Speleer and Van
der Valk, 2017). In the Czech Republic, in Prague,
C. pepo
seeds were found in the infll of the vault of Prague Castle’s
Vladislav Hall, which is dated between the 16
th
and 17
th
century, and in two cesspits framed within the same period
(Beneš
et al.
, 2012). One seed and a half of
C. pepo
were
also retrieved from a pit in Dudley Castle, central England,
which was used between 1642 and 1647 (Mofet, 1992).
Other European fndings of the same species include 17
th
century latrine deposits from Amsterdam in the Netherlands
(Paap, 1984), Bratislava in Slovakia (Hajnalová, 1985) and
Arnstadt, Germany (Lappe, 1978).
Among the animal remains from the discard pit of the
tower, no New World species were recovered, but the faunal
sample from US 521 in the excavations of the former porch
yielded a pelvis attributed to
Cavia porcellus
. The whole
specimen appears slightly burnt, but given its uniform
distribution over the bone surface, such modifcation is
probably not related to cooking. Although no cut marks
were detected on the specimen, it is not possible to exclude
a priori
that this animal was used as food because coeval
recipes using this species are known (
e.g.
Scappi, 1570).
The guinea pig was likely imported to Europe within
the frst half of the 16
th
century. The Swiss naturalist
Conrad Gessner describes and depicts this species, calling
it
Cuniculo vel Porcello Indico,
in his
Historia Animalium
published between 1551 and 1558, based on individuals he
received as gifts from France and from Germany. Depictions
of this animal appear in early 17
th
century paintings such as
the Garden of Eden and the Entry of Animals into Noah’s
Ark by the Flemish artist Jan Brueghel the Elder. Skeletal
remains of this species are very rare in archaeological sites
and early specimens have so far been identifed only in
England in a manor at Hill Hall (Essex) within a context
dated to 1574–75 (Hamilton-Dyer, 2009), in a middle-class
residence referable to the late 16
th
–early 17
th
century at
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Claudia Moricca, Francesca Alhaique, Lia Barelli, Alessia Masi, Simona Morretta, Rafaele Pugliese, Laura Sadori: Early Arrival of New World Species Enriching
the Biological Assemblage of the Santi Quattro Coronati Complex (Rome, Italy)
201
Mons in Belgium (Pigiére
et al.
, 2012), and in a farmstead at
Middleburg (Netherlands) from layers of the late 17
th
–early
18
th
century (Van Dijk and Silkens, 2012). In Europe, guinea
pigs were initially considered only as prestigious exotic
pets, but relatively soon they also became part of the human
diet, as suggested by recipes in the
Opera
by Bartolomeo
Scappi (1570), where he also mentions that, although the
best season to eat the
coniglio d’India
was between October
and February, it was available in Rome and in other places in
Italy all year round.
6. Conclusion
The botanical and faunal assemblage of the disposal pit
has allowed much information to be gathered regarding the
diet and daily habits of the inhabitants of the Santi Quattro
Coronati complex during the Early Modern period. The
bulk of the biological remains were made up of hay and the
plant assemblage, and poor in remains that are indicators
of latrines, such as fg achenes and blackberry endocarps,
allowing us to characterise the pit as a disposal for residues
of food preparation and meals. The table and kitchen waste
comprised remains of cereals, legumes, vegetables, fruits,
nuts, spices, molluscs, fsh, birds, and mammals.
Three New World species, two pumpkins from the pit, and
the guinea pig from the former porch, complement the Old
World species assemblage.
The
C
.
pepo
and
C. maxima/moschata
seeds found in
the pit of Santi Quattro Coronati represent one of the oldest
retrievals of such species, if not the oldest, in Europe. While
C
.
pepo
represents the oldest fnd,
C
.
moschata/maxima
has
also been found in Northern Italy in a cesspit ascribed to
the 15
th
–16
th
century (Barbi
et al.
, 1998). In the absence of a
more precise dating it is not possible to ascertain which one
would be the oldest fnd.
The guinea pig specimen, referable to the end of the 16
th
or
beginning of the 17
th
century, represents the frst evidence of
this species in Italy and one of the earliest in Europe.
These early introductions could be justifed by the fact
that the Cardinal’s palace, a very prestigious and wealthy
landmark, was one of the frst stops along the trading routes
that emanated from the New World, leading to the rapid
availability of new plant and animal species. This may
possibly also be related to the role of Cardinal Lorenzo
Pucci, titular of the Santi Quattro between 1513 and 1524,
as supervisor for the Church of the Indies in the Consistory.
The high social status of the inhabitants of the complex
can be further afrmed by the presence of pomegranate
remains, associated with fertility, hope for immortality, and
resurrection.
The Santi Quattro Coronati complex represents a unique
case study in the context of Early Modern archaeobotany and
archaeozoology, and even more so due to the outstanding
state of conservation of the mummifed remains. It allows
another piece of the puzzle to be added to the picture of New
World species being imported to Europe.
The present study also demonstrates the wide potential of
scientifc research in relation to the Modern Age, a historical
period to which it has yet to be applied for this specifc
context. Furthermore, it represents a work carried out in
full harmony between the Academy, involving diferent
areas of study and specialization, and the Superintendence,
the national body ofcially in charge for the conservation
of cultural heritage, obtaining relevant results in a common
framework and the shared goal of scientifc research.
Acknowledgments
We would like to express our gratitude towards Carlo Pavolini
and Paola di Manzano of the
Soprintendenza Speciale
Archeologia Belle Arti e Paesaggio di Roma
(Institute for
Archaeological Heritage in Rome), who succeeded each
other in charge of the complex and have allowed the proper
conservation and study of the materials. We would also like
to thank the Little Sisters of the Lamb, the current inhabitants
of the wing of the complex in which the materials are stored,
for their kindness and hospitality in giving the materials to
researchers.
Francesca Alhaique is extremely grateful to Wim Van
Neer of the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences for
fundamental discussion on the identifcation of the
Cavia
porcellus
specimen and for providing information on the
reference material in the Belgian collection.
Diego Sabato is acknowledged for his help in the
identifcation of some archaeobotanical specimens.
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