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IX/2/2018
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
The disappearance of cultural landscapes: the case of wooded-meadows
in the Ligurian Apennines (NW Italy)
Chiara Molinari
a*
, Carlo Montanari
b
a
Department of Physical Geography and Ecosystem Science, Lund University, Sölvegatan 12, 22362 Lund, Sweden
b
Department of Earth, Environmental and Life Sciences, University of Genoa, Corso Europa 26, 16132 Genoa, Italy
1. Introduction
The management system commonly known as “wooded-
meadows” consists of a multifunctional use of vegetation
resources that has been widespread in Europe (particularly
in the region around the Baltic Sea, and in the mountains
of central and southern Europe) since the Neolithic (Sigaut,
1982; Rasmussen, 1990; Maggi, Nisbet, 2000). Wooded-
meadows are generally defned as meadows with trees, or
a combination of trees, grassland and tall-herb vegetation.
Trees typically cover 10–50% of the ground, while 80–
90% can be mowed (Kull
et al
., 2003). Wooded-meadows
were originally managed with a series of cyclical tasks
(Figure 1) including: (a) the collection of fallen and dead
branches in spring, later used for fuel; (b) mowing and
grazing during summer; (c) the collection of secondary
products (
e.g.
berries, mushrooms, medicinal herbs,
etc.
)
in autumn; (d) making sheaves from branches and twigs
(after hay-making), later dried and used for cattle and sheep
fodder in winter; (e) coppicing, pollarding and cutting of
trees in winter (Moreno, Raggio, 1990; Read, 2000; Grove,
Rackham, 2001). The outcome of such an extensive form of
land-use was a highly productive system providing wood,
grass, leaf-hay and fruits, with a consequent maintenance
of fertility and increase of species diversity (Kukk, Kull,
1997; Peterken, 2017).
Within this context, our main aim was to better understand
the main consequences of this land-use practice on
vegetation structure and composition in the past. By means
of an interdisciplinary approach, we studied three diferent
sites located in eastern Ligurian Apennines (Figure 2),
an area where the management of wooded-meadows was
widespread between the Middle Ages and the frst half of
the 19
th
century, but which has since disappeared (Moreno,
1990; Lowe
et al
., 1994; Davite, Moreno, 1996; Moreno,
Poggi, 1996; Cevasco, 2007).
Volume IX ● Issue 2/2018 ● Pages 157
–167
*Corresponding author. E-mail: chiara.molinari@nateko.lu.se
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 30
th
May 2018
Accepted: 29
th
November 2018
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.24916/iansa.2018.2.3
Key words:
pollen and charcoal analyses
historical topographic maps and documents
historical aerial and ground level photos
natural resources management
Fagus sylvatica
L.
ABSTRACT
The “wooded-meadows system” is a multifunctional use of vegetation resources widespread in Europe
since the Neolithic, and well documented in the Ligurian Apennines (NW Italy) between the Middle
Ages and the frst half of the 19
th
century. The management of wooded-meadows included: collection
of fallen and dead branches in spring, later used for fuel; mowing and grazing in summer; collection of
secondary products; making sheaves from branches in autumn, later used as cattle and sheep fodder;
coppicing, pollarding and cutting of trees in winter.
Three sites located in eastern Ligurian Apennines were studied by means of an interdisciplinary
approach in order to better understand the impact and the consequences of this historical land-
use practice on vegetation structure and composition. In particular, based on specifc features of
palynological diagrams, it was possible to conclude that (compared to the post-cultural phase) when the
wooded-meadows system was in use, all the sites were characterized by: (1) lower pollen percentages
of trees; (2) higher pollen percentages of shrubs and herbs; (3) higher percentages of anthropogenic
pollen indicators; (4) higher values of palynological richness.
This research also represents a contribution to issues of nature-conservation policy for the preservation
of cultural landscapes.
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2. Methodology
2.1 Site selection and description
2.1.1 Pian della Cavalla
UTM 32T, WGS84: 518570 E; 4936939 N, 1267 m
asl, Figures 2 and 3a. This site is located in the Trebbia
Valley, eastern Ligurian Apennines. Today the site is a hay
meadow, with scattered beech groves, characterised by the
presence of a small pond, completely dry in summer. The
grassland is rich in Poaceae (
i.e.
Brachypodium rupestre
Hudson,
Festuca pratensis
L.,
Phleum pratense
L.,
Avenella
fexuosa
(L.) Drejer) and many other herb species such as
Genista tinctoria
L.,
Asphodelus albus
Mill.,
Hypericum
perforatum
L.,
Leucanthemum vulgare
Lam.,
Arnica
montana
L.,
Valeriana ofcinalis
L.,
Orchis mascula
L. and
Narcissus poeticus
L. The small pond hosts species typical
of temporary wet soils such as
Carex vesicaria
L.,
Carex
vulpina
L.,
Heleocharis palustris
(L.) Roem. & Schult,
Galium palustre
L.,
Ranunculus repens
L. and
Potentilla
erecta
(L.) Raeuschel.
2.1.2 Lago della Nava
UTM 32T, WGS84: 523975 E; 4929041 N, 1165 m asl,
Figures. 2 and 3b. This site is located on the watershed
between the Trebbia and Aveto Valleys, eastern Ligurian
Apennines. Currently the sampling site is a temporary
pond, dry in summer, dominated by
Polygonum arenastrum
Boreau
and
Spergularia rubra
(L.) C. Presl. The
surrounding vegetation is characterized by
Fagus sylvatica
L. woodlands, with presence of
Acer pseudoplatanus
L
.
,
Sorbus aria
(L.) Crantz,
S. aucuparia
L.,
Fraxinus
ornus
L.,
Laburnum alpinum
(Miller) Berchtold et Presl,
Quercus cerri
s L.,
Pyrus piraster
Burgsd.,
Prunus avium
L.,
Salix caprea
L. In open areas, shrubs such as
Calluna
vulgaris
(L.) Hull,
Genista pilosa
L.,
Juniperus communis
L.
, Prunus spinosa
L.,
Crataegus monogyna
Jacq.,
Rosa
canina
L.,
Vaccinium myrtillus
L. and
Cytisus scoparius
(L.) are also common. Of particular interest, between the
post-medieval period and the frst half of the 20
th
century,
the area was part of an extensive network of transhumance
routes. Furthermore, today the site is located inside the SIC-
Figure 1.
Diferent tasks included in the
cyclical management of wooded-meadows.
Figure 2
. Location map of the study sites.
0 50 km
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ZSC (
i.e.
Site of Community Importance-Special Zone of
Conservation) IT1331012 “
Lago Marcotto – Roccabruna
– Gifarco – Lago della Nave
” and is included in the Natura
2000 network. Evidence of the ancient wooded-meadows
are visible today thanks to the presence in the surroundings
of old pollarded beeches. Additionally, close to the
site, there are still some “
casoni
”, traditional buildings
widespread in the Ligurian Apennines between the 17
th
and
the 20
th
century used as a refuge for shepherds and animals
during the night.
2.1.3 Rachixìna
UTM 32T, WGS84: 527888 E; 4934310 N, 1334 m asl,
Figures 2 and 3c. This site is located between the Trebbia and
Aveto Valleys, eastern Ligurian Apennines. Today the site is
a woodland with ancient pollarded beech trees, completely
abandoned, with a very poor understory characterised by
nitrophilous and synanthropic species (
e.g.
Polygonatum
verticillatum
(L.) All.,
Geranium robertianum
L.,
Galeopsis
tetrahit
L. and
Galeopsis speciosa
Miller). Moreover, the
presence of many centuries-old large pollarded beeches is a
memory of past management practices related to the use of
wooded-meadows in the area. Furthermore, the occurrence
of the epiphytic lichen
Lobaria pulmonaria
(L.) Hofm.,
commonly associated with the presence of ancient trees,
suggests the high conservation priority of the site (Rolstad
et al.
, 2001; Nascimbene
et al.
, 2013). Actually
Rachixìna
is located inside the SIC-ZSC IT1331012 “
Lago Marcotto –
Roccabruna – Gifarco – Lago della Nave
” and is included in
the Natura 2000 network.
2.2 Historical documents
The comparison of historical topographic maps, historical
aerial photos, historical photos and historical archival
documents dated back to the last
ca
.150 years allowed the
reconstruction of the most important vegetation and land-
use changes at the three selected sites. This approach, based
on the use of diferent sources, has already provided good
results in the past within our research group (Cevasco, 2007;
Poggi, 2013; Molinari, Montanari, 2016).
2.3 Field and laboratory methods
Each selected site was studied through biostratigraphic
analyses with the aim of identifying specifc palynological
assemblages associated with the wooded-meadows system.
While at
Pian della Cavalla
and
Lago della Nava
we
cored the wetland area, at
Rachixìna –
due to the absence
of nearby wetlands – a soil profle was sampled. Lithology
and stratigraphy were recorded in the feld, and soil pH
(determined in H
2
O) was measured using a standard
technique (Thunjai, Boyd, 2001).
At
Pian della Cavalla
and
Lago della Nava
sub-samples
(2 cm
3
volume) for pollen and microcharcoal analysis were
extracted every 5 cm between 0 and 30 cm, and every 10 cm
between 30 and 50 cm. At
Rachixìna
the samples were
extracted from 0, 1, 2.5, 5, 8, 13, 23, 28, 32, 38, 43, 48, 53,
58, 63 and 68 cm deep.
Lycopodium
tablets were added to
the samples (Stockmarr, 1971), which were processed using
standard laboratory procedures (Moore
et al
., 1991). Due
to the generally low concentration (calculated as number
of grains/gram of sediment), a minimum of 200 pollen
grains (excluding fern spores) were counted at each level;
the minimum number of grains necessary for a statistically-
valid count was therefore reached (Barkley, 1934; Bryant,
Holloway, 1983). Microcharcoals between 10 and 200 μm
were counted in pollen slides.
Pollen identifcation follows the keys and illustrations
in Moore
et al
. (1991) and Reille (1992–1995), and the
reference pollen collection at the University of Genoa.
One sample of each profle was sent to the Beta Analytic
Dating Laboratory of Miami (Florida) for accelerator mass
spectrometry (AMS) radiocarbon dating. Furthermore,
for the
Rachixìna
soil profle, three additional dates were
Figure 3
. Present-day situation at the
selected
Fagus sylvatica
L. wooded-
meadows. a)
Pian della Cavalla
, b)
Lago
della Nava
, c)
Rachixìna
. In a) and b) the
wetland area is underlined in blue. Pictures:
C. Molinari, 2008.
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assigned thanks to the information collected from some
historical documents concerning reforestation practices and
authorizations for the ignition of charcoal piles (Figure 4).
The AMS radiocarbon ages were calibrated to calendar
years BP (0 BP = AD 1950) using the software OxCal 3.10
(Bronk Ramsey, 2005) and the IntCal04 calibration curve
(Reimer
et al
., 2004). The most likely probability within the
2σ calibrated results (95.4% confdence range) was used for
chronological control (Table 1). While for the clay sediments
cored at
Pian della Cavalla
and
Lago della Nava
it was
possible to assume a quite constant sedimentation rate and
thus interpolate between the available dates for obtaining
Figure 4
. Information collected from
the historical archival documents in the
area close to
Rachixìna
and the location
of the sites listed in the table (Carta
Tecnica Regionale, scale 1: 25 000). The
information used for dating some variations
in the palynological diagram are highlighted
in bold.
Table 1.
Details of the AMS radiocarbon dates.
Site Lab. refDepth (cm) Material datedUncal. 14C-yr BP
2σ cal. results
Pian della Cavalla
Beta-25198850Bulk sediment sample2280±40
cal BC 390 – 360 (68%)
cal BC 300 – 210 (95%)*
Lago della Nava
Beta-25199050Bulk sediment sample1940±40
cal BC 30 – AD 130 (95%)*
cal AD 20 – 90 (68%)
Rachixìna
Beta-2413A55Bulk soil sample2125±45
cal BC 360 – 280 (15.6%)
cal BC 260 – 40 (79.8%)*
*Most likely probability
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Figure 5
. Simplifed palynological diagrams for
Pian della Cavalla
(a),
Lago della Nava
(b) and
Rachixìna
(c). Analyses by C. Molinari.
an estimated continuous chronology, for the
Rachixìna’
soil
profle such interpolation was impossible.
Summary pollen percentages were graphically displayed
together with microcharcoal concentrations (Figures 5 and 6)
using the software Tilia 2.0.41 (Grimm, 2015). Local pollen
assemblage zones (hereafter L-PAZs) have been defned
for each pollen diagram to facilitate the description and the
interpretation of major vegetation and land-use changes
(Figure 6).
Variation in palynological richness (Figures 5 and 6), a
proxy for species richness (Oldfeld, Dearing, 2003), was
estimated using the rarefaction analysis technique (Birks,
Line, 1992). By removing the efect of diferent count sizes
on the number of pollen taxa recorded, this method assesses
the expected palynological richness if the pollen sum (usually
the lowest total sum in the sequence) had been the same for
each pollen sample (Odgaard, 2001).
3. Results
3.1 Historical documents
At
Pian della Cavalla
, the study of diferent topographic
maps (Figure 7) from the last
ca
. 150 years allows the
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Figure 6
. Summary pollen diagrams showing trends of total trees, shrubs, herbs and anthropogenic pollen indicators, together with microcharcoal
concentrations and palynological richness for
Pian della Cavalla
(a),
Lago della Nava
(b), and
Rachixìna
(c). The period when the wooded-meadows
system was widespread in the selected sites is highlighted.
Figure 7.
Historical topographic maps showing main land-use changes at
Pian della Cavalla
between 1852 and 1986. a) Gran Carta degli Stati Sardi in
Terraferma, Corpo di Stato Maggiore Sardo (1852), scale 1: 50 000, sheet Torriglia; b) Istituto Geografco Militare – Firenze (1878), scale 1: 50 000, sheet
Ottone; c) Carta d’Italia (1936), scale 1: 25 000, sheet 83; d) Carta Tecnica Regionale (1986), scale 1: 25 000, sheet Rovegno/Gorreto. G=gerbido (wood/
meadow), P=prato (meadow), B=bosco (woodland).
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Figure 8
. Historical aerial photos from
Pian della Cavalla
. a) Istituto Geografco
Militare – Firenze (1954), scale 1: 33 000;
b) Regione Liguria, SP-GE (1995), scale 1:
13 000.
Figure 9
. Historical aerial photos from
Lago della Nava
. a) Regione Liguria, SP-GE (1973), scale 1: 13 000; b) Regione Liguria, SP-GE (1995), scale 1:
10 000; c) Regione Liguria, TREB/FONT (1999), scale 1: 10 000.
Figure 10
. Historical photos from
Lago
della Nava
. a) 1957, personal collection,
Fontanigorda (GE); b) 1981, photo C.
Montanari; c) 2000, LASA archive; d)
2009, photo C. Molinari.
progressive retreatment of meadows and the expansion of
woodlands to be highlighted. Similarly, the comparison
between aerial photos dated 1954 and 1995 (Figure 8) shows
the transformation of the landscape from patchy agricultural
lands to a more homogenous arboreal vegetation.
At
Lago della Nava
, the comparison of historical aerial
photos (Figure 9) and historical ground level photos
(Figure 10) from the last
ca
. 60 years enabled the highlighting
of the progressive reduction of the water basin, probably due
to an increase in the arboreal vegetation surrounding the
wetland and the replacement of pastures with woodlands
(see also Gemignani, 2013).
At
Rachixìna
, evidence about the past management of the
area has been collected from historical archival documents.
In particular, information concerning reforestation practices
and the authorizing of the ignition of charcoal piles over the
last
ca
. 80 years (Figure 4) have been used for dating some
variations in the palynological diagram (Figures 5 and 6).
Furthermore, a handwritten map (scale 1: 9450; Figure 11)
edited by the Sardinia Kingdom’s military topographer
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Gustavo Scati in 1827 shows – for the area surrounding
Rachixìna –
a completely open landscape, without trees. In
these kinds of maps land-use classifcation was based on the
type of obstacle represented by the forest cover to the passage
of military troops or for military manoeuvres (Cevasco,
Moreno, 2007). This probably means that the trees present
at
Rachixìna
in 1827 were scattered and did not represent an
obstacle for military operations (Cevasco, 2002).
3.2 Biostratigraphical analyses
Pian della Cavalla
and
Lago della Nava
sediment profles
were similar in appearance, mainly clayey, grey or brown
in colour according to the amount of organic matter and
the oscillating water table. The
Rachixìna
soil profle, by
contrast, was characterised by a thick leaf-litter layer (Oa-
horizon), followed by a dark reddish-brown clay A-horizon
and a thick C-horizon of clay with gravel (Table 2).
Pollen preservation was generally poor. Particularly
for
Rachixìna
, a pattern of increasing percentages of
corroded/unidentifed pollen grains with depth, together
with decreasing pollen concentration in the lower samples,
is explained by degradation of palynomorphs caused by
oxidation processes, microbiological activity, and organic
matter decomposition (Gavin, Brubaker, 1999; Wilmshurst,
Figure 11
Handwritten map (scale 1: 1940)
edited by the Sardinia Kingdom’s military
topographer Gustavo Scati describing the
vegetation cover at
Rachixìna
in 1827.
Table 2.
Description of the profles sampled for pollen and microcharcoal analyses.
Site Depth (cm)DescriptionpH (H
2
O)Munsell soil color
Pian della Cavalla
0-2Organic, herbaceous turf––
2-12Clay horizon with high proportion of organic matter6,2
2.5Y 6/2
12-33Clay horizon with little proportion of organic matter6,8
2.5Y 7/2
33-50Sandy clay horizon (absence of organic matter)
7,4
2.5Y 8/2
Lago della Nava
0-1Organic, herbaceous turf––
1-10Clay horizon with little proportion of organic matter6
2.5Y 7/2
10-16Clay horizon with high proportion of organic matter6,7
2.5Y 7/2
16-28Clay horizon with little proportion of organic matter6,1
2.5Y 7/2
28-50Sandy clay horizon (absence of organic matter)6
2.5Y 6/2
Rachixìna
0-5Organic, highly decomposed (Oa)––
5-11Clay horizon with high proportion of organic matter (A1)3,9
5YR 3/3
11-48Clay horizon with little proportion of organic matter (A2)4,2
5YR 3/3
48-75Clay horizon with gravel and absence of organic matter (C)3,9
5YR 3/3
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McGlone, 2005). However, despite this, the acidity of the soil
profle may have helped towards some level of preservation
of pollen grains (Segerström, 1991; Dijkstra, van Mourik,
1995).
The pollen and microcharcoal analytical results are
presented in three palynological diagrams, one for each study
site (Figure 5). The downward changes in the diagrams,
consistent with the vegetation and land-use history described
by the historical sources, argue for similar processes
occurring across the sites and for minimum bioturbation and
mixing of the sequences.
At
Pian della Cavalla
(Figure 5a), the most ancient L-PAZ
(CAV1, 27–50 cm; ~200 BC–800 AD) is characterised
by a quite open landscape, with abundant ferns. The main
herbaceous species (~65% of Total Land Pollen, hereafter
TLP) are
Narcissus
, Poaceae,
Plantago
and Labiatae.
Ericaceae have their maximum in this phase. The tree cover
is dominated by
Abies
, an important component of northern
Apennines mesophilous, mixed woodlands for most of the
Holocene, until the Medieval period (Branch, 2004, Guido
et al
., 2013). Small percentages of
Fagus
,
Corylus
,
Alnus
,
deciduous
Quercus
and
Castanea
are also present. Mean
microcharcoal concentration and palynological richness
are lower in comparison to more recent L-PAZs. CAV2
(17–27 cm; ~800–1200 AD) is characterized by an increase
in arboreal species (up to 60% of TLP), always dominated
by
Abies
, with
Fagus
, deciduous
Quercus
,
Corylus
,
Alnus
and
Castanea,
while the Ericaceae decrease. Within the
herbaceous component, Poaceae, ferns and
Narcissus
are
dominant
.
Microcharcoal concentrations remain quite steady,
while palynological richness increases. During the last
phase (CAV3, 0–17 cm; ~1200–2000 AD) arboreal species
decrease again. This is mainly due to the post-medieval
disappearance of
Abies
(present again – with
Pinus
and
Picea
– in the uppermost levels, testifying the reforestation
practices carried out in the area during the second half of the
20
th
century). The only tree showing an increase is
Castanea
,
underlying the expansion of chestnut cultivation during this
period. Ericaceae increase in the last phase. The herbaceous
layer (~65% of TLP) is dominated by Poaceae, Cichorieae,
Plantago
and
Narcissus,
with
Cerealia. Aquatic species
(especially Juncaceae and Cyperaceae) reach their maximum
in this fnal phase. Both microcharcoal concentrations and
palynological richness increase. The overall picture is thus
quite similar to the present landscape.
At
Lago della Nava
(Figure 5b), the frst L-PAZ (NAVA1,
28–50 cm; ~80–1000 AD) is dominated by herbaceous species
(~60% of TLP, mainly ferns and Poaceae, with
Plantago
and
Cichorieae)
.
The occurrence of a few Cerealia pollen grains is
simultaneous with a peak in the microcharcoal concentration
.
The shrub component consists of
Vaccinium
and
Juniperus
.
The arboreal species (33% of TLP) mainly consist of
Fagus
,
Castanea,
Alnus
and
Fraxinus
. The presence of
Pinus
pollen is probably of
extra
-local origin, while the peak in
Abies
coincides with the one recorded at
Pian della Cavalla
during the Medieval period. Palynological richness is low.
During NAVA2 (12–28 cm; ~1000–1500 AD) arboreal
taxa, aquatics and ferns decrease, while a rise in herbaceous
species and shrubs is recorded. Cerealia and palynological
richness increase. The most recent phase (NAVA3, 0–12 cm;
~1500–2000 AD) is dominated by ferns, Poaceae,
Plantago
and Cichorieae. Aquatic species reach a peak around the
second half of the 19
th
century, and then decrease in recent
times. Shrub percentages remain constant. Palynological
richness is quite high, as in the previous L-PAZ. Regarding
microcharcoal concentrations, their values are discontinuous
during the whole recorded time span. This fact might be
due to the occasional use of controlled fres for agricultural
practices or for an opening up of new grazing areas.
At
Rachixìna
(Figure 5c), the most ancient L-PAZ (RAX1,
63–68 cm) is dominated by
Fagus
, with low occurrence of
Corylus
,
Alnus
,
Quercus
deciduous,
Pinus
and
Abies
. The
high amount of ferns might indicate a high soil oxidation
that caused a deterioration of pollen grains (Dimbleby,
1957). The herbaceous layer (~30% of TLP) is characterised
by the predominance of Poaceae,
Plantago
and Cichorieae.
Ericaceae have their peak during this phase. Microcharcoal
concentration is high, while palynological richness is
lower than during the following L-PAZ. RAX2 (8–58 cm;
55 cm = 260–40 BC) is still dominated by
Fagus
, but with
a higher amount of herbaceous species (~40% of TLP). The
presence of Cerealia pollen, the microcharcoal oscillations
and the higher values of palynological richness support the
hypothesis that agricultural practices (probably involving the
use of controlled fres) were carried out close to the site. The
last phase (RAX3, 0–5 cm; ~1930–2000 AD) is characterised
by a close forest canopy (arboreal pollen >80% of TLP),
still dominated by
Fagus
, with
Ostrya
,
Corylus
,
Quercus
deciduous,
Alnus
,
Castanea
,
Fraxinus
and planted
Pinus
.
Herbs and shrubs decrease, and thus so does palynological
richness. By contrast, microcharcoal concentration increases,
probably due to the ignition of wood piles for the production
of charcoal in beech woodlands documented by the historical
sources (Figure 4).
4. Discussion
The present study can be considered as a frst attempt to shed
more light – by means of an interdisciplinary approach –
on the specifc dynamics of past land-use connected to the
management of beech wooded-meadows in the Ligurian
Apennines.
Even if the comparison between biostratigraphical results
(pollen and microcharcoal data) and historical sources
(archival documents, topographic maps, ground photos and
aerial photos) is not straightforward due to the diferent
temporal and spatial scales, the vegetation dynamics
recorded by the palynological sequences match quite well
with the information collected for the last 200 years from
other datasets. Certainly, an increase in the number of
sediment/soil samples analysed and of radiocarbon dates
for each profle would have improved the reliability of our
results.
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166
At
Pian della Cavalla
, palynological investigations show
the presence of an open landscape during the whole recorded
time period (
ca
. the last 2200 years). In particular, since c.
1300 AD, the pollen diagram shows the transition from grazed
mixed woodlands to beech wooded-meadows (underlined by
the increase in anthropogenic pollen indicators; Figure 5).
Furthermore, the high percentages of
Narcissus
are connected
with mowing and grazing practices (Cevasco, 2007), while
the increase in microcharcoal concentrations suggests the
use of controlled fres in the area.
Also, at
Lago della Nava
, the palynological results
suggest a long-lasting land-use continuity characterised by
agricultural management practices connected to the wooded-
meadows system. In fact, the whole pollen sequence (about
the last 1900 years) records an open landscape, characterised
by herbs and shrubs typical of grazed meadows and a
sparse forest cover. Furthermore, the discontinuous trend of
microcharcoal concentrations suggests an irregular use of
controlled fres for temporary agricultural practices or for
opening up new grazing areas. In addition, between the post-
medieval time and the frst half of the 20
th
century, the site
is described as an important hub in the extensive network
of transhumance routes between the coastal areas and the
Apennines mountains (Moreno, Raggio, 1990; Moreno,
Poggi, 1996).
At
Rachixìna
, we interpreted the LPAZ characterised
by the co-existence of trees, meadows and temporary
arable lands (marked by the presence of Cerealia and by a
discontinuous trend in microcharcoal concentrations) as the
period of maximum spread of wooded-meadows. As already
suggested by Lowe
et al
. (1994), this time span might
correspond to the Lombard period (c
.
500–600 AD).
Based on these assumptions, it is possible to conclude that
– compared to the post-cultural phase – when the wooded-
meadows system was in use, the pollen diagrams from
Pian della Cavalla
,
Lago della Nava
and
Rachixìna
were
characterised by (Figure 6):
•
lower pollen percentages of trees and higher amounts
of herbs, typical of landscapes with a predominance of
open areas;
•
higher pollen percentages of shrubs (according to
Métailié (1981) and Canals and Sebastia (2002),
Ericaceae
and
Juniperus
are taxa normally favoured
by the use of controlled fres in meadows and
pastures);
•
higher percentages of anthropogenic pollen indicators
(
i.e.
– according to Behre (1981), Branch (2004),
Caramiello and Arobba (2003) and Mercuri
et al.
(2013)
–
Artemisia
,
Cannabis
, Caryophyllaceae,
Centaurea
cyanus,
Cerealia, Chenopodiaceae, Cichorieae,
Cruciferae,
Galium
, Papaveraceae,
Plantago
lanceolata, P. major/media, Rumex,
Urticaceae),
testifying the use of temporary agricultural practices
close to the sites;
•
higher values of palynological richness and thus – in
agreement with Oldfeld and Dearing (2003) – greater
biodiversity.
For what concerns microcharcoal concentrations, their
trend is quite variable within and between the sites and we
have thus avoided making any generalizations.
5. Conclusions
By combining palynological and documentary evidence with
a long-term perspective in order to investigate historical
cultural landscapes, this research has allowed more light
to be shed on a particular management practice that was
previously widespread in the Ligurian Apennines.
In particular, our results have provided independent
biostratigraphic evidence of the disappearance of landscapes
that were characterized by a higher biodiversity than today,
due to the past land-use activities. In all our selected sites,
the abandonment of multiple management practices in
connection with the wooded-meadows system, documented
by the available biological, archival and oral evidence, has
caused the loss of part of the environmental and cultural
Ligurian heritage.
Although the three sites are today nearly abandoned, this
present investigation has ofered new insights for a well-
informed restoration of our cultural landscapes or, at the
very least, for their proper characterisation. This particular
heritage should be preserved with the reintroduction of
traditional agricultural activities so as to prevent the current
pattern of natural forest succession, and restore vegetation
and habitat diversity. By recognising how long-term
landscape transformations and exploitation of resources have
shaped the structure, composition and function of present
ecosystems, it is possible to appreciate the indirect role of
past land-use practices (
e.g.
grazing, mowing, selective
cutting of trees and shrubs, hay making, spring raking) in the
creation and maintainance of highly biodiverse landscapes.
This study can also be considered a potential contribution
to the issues of habitat management and nature-conservation
policy, especially because both
Lago della Nava
and
Rachixìna
are presently located in protected areas.
Since the existence of this kind of landscape was strictly
connected to the use of specifc management practices,
certain conservation actions might be included: from their
integration into management plans (
e.g.
by reintroducing
historical agricultural techniques) to the restoration and
preservation of ancient pollarded trees.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to acknowledge Diego Moreno and
Roberta Cevasco for site selection and fruitful discussions.
Many thanks to Maria Angela Guido and Sandra Placereani
for laboratory assistance and to Bruna Ilde Menozzi for
great help during the feldwork. This research is part of
Chiara Molinari’s PhD thesis, within the course “Historical
Geography for the Development of the Environmental and
Historical Heritage” at the University of Genoa (Italy).
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Chiara Molinari, Carlo Montanari: The disappearance of cultural landscapes: the case of wooded-meadows in the Ligurian Apennines (NW Italy)
167
Financial support was provided by the “
Ministre de
l’Ecologie et du Développement Durable (France)
” in
the framework of the project PAHF (
Les paysages de
l’arbre hors forêt: Multi-valorisation dans le cadre d’un
développement local durable en Europe du Sud
) and by the
Genoa University Research Project (DISMEC-2007) “
Storia
topografca di sistemi agro-silvo-pastorali
” led by Diego
Moreno.
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