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121
IX/2/2018
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in
Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site
in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
Jaromír Beneš
a,b
, Goce Naumov
c
, Tereza Majerovičová
a,b*
, Kristýna Budilová
a
, Jiří Bumerl
a,b
, Veronika
Komárková
a
, Jaromír Kovárník
a
, Michaela Vychronová
b
, Lucie Juřičková
d
a
Laboratory of Archaeobotany and Palaeoecology, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, Na Zlaté stoce 3, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech
Republic
b
Institute of Archaeology, Faculty of Philosophy, University of South Bohemia, Branišovská 31a, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
c
Center for Prehistoric Research/Goce Delčev University, Kiro Krstevski Platnik 11-2/7, Republic of Macedonia
d
Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Viničná 7, 128 44 Praha 2, Czech Republic
1. Introduction
1.1 Neolithic bioarchaeological knowledge
from the Balkans in context
Current bioarchaeological research over the last two
decades has comprised archaeobotany, archaeozoology
and biological anthropology (human bioarchaeology) and
in a broader concept of bioarchaeology, as postulated by
J. G. D. Clark already in the 1970s (Clark, 1973). In current
research, this broader perspective of bioarchaeology has been
adopted mostly by European scholars (
e.g.
Beneš, Pokorný
eds., 2008; Robb, 2014; Marinova
et al.
, 2013; Bouby
et al.
, 2013; Miladinović
-
Radmilović, Vitezović, 2016),
because such an approach better refects the current trend
towards transdisciplinarity – compared to the narrower view
postulated by Larsen for human bioarchaeology (Larsen,
1997; 2014). In this paper, we follow the former approach,
a broader concept of bioarchaeology: one comprising the
interaction between plants, animals and humans, as refected
in the archaeological record.
Neolithic research in southeast Europe has, for many years,
ofered rich assemblages of bioarchaeological objects: animal
bones and other faunal remains, botanical macroremains and
microremains (Ivanova
et al.
, 2018). The southern regions of
the Balkans provide a rich and complex network of Neolithic
sites (Müller, 2015; Raczky, 2015). Current research refects
the long and varied tradition here; however, archaeology in
the last century was under the strong infuence of artefactual
archaeology during a period when the research paradigm
was oriented towards cultural history (Souvatzi, 2008,
Volume IX ● Issue 2/2018 ● Pages 121
–145
*Corresponding author. E-mail: tmajerovicova@gmail.com
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 22
nd
September 2018
Accepted: 31
st
December 2018
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.24916/iansa.2018.2.1
Key words:
bioarchaeology
archaeobotany
Neolithic
phytoliths
starch
macroremains
Balkans
ABSTRACT
This paper is focused on the Neolithic tell-site of Vrbjanska Čuka in Pelagonia, Republic of
Macedonia, where the authors have been performing archaeobotanical research since 2016. Results of
the analyses of botanical macroremains and microremains (starch, phytoliths) and faunal microremains
collected in season 2016 are presented in the broader context of the Neolithic in the Balkans in order
to estimate the bioarchaeological potential of this site. The frst and fnal parts of the paper outline the
bioarchaeological studies connected with Neolithic settlements in the southern regions of the Balkans.
A substantial proliferation of environmental studies has been recorded in the last decade concerning
the archaeobotanical and archaeozoological evidence. Here, most attention is paid to archaeobotanical
studies which consider Neolithic settlements and their bioarchaeological context.
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Jaromír Beneš, Goce Naumov, Tereza Majerovičová, Kristýna Budilová, Jiří Bumerl, Veronika Komárková, Jaromír Kovárník, Michaela Vychronová, Lucie Juřičková:
An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
122
pp. 47–51). This concept substantially favoured those studies
dealing with material culture rather than ones addressing
environmental and biological issues. Furthermore, the lack
of local specialists led to a predominance of artefactual and
architectural studies.
Bioarchaeological research was concentrated towards
large systematic excavations made by international
expeditions. This is clearly the case with the older research
history of the site of Amzabegovo (Gimbutas, 1974; 1976),
Sitagroi (Renfrew
et al.
, 1986; Näslund, 2009), Argissa
(Reingruber, 2005), Nea Nikomedeia (Pyke, Yiouni, 1996;
van Zeist, Bottema, 1971), Karanovo (Hiller, Nikolov, 1988)
and Dikili Tash (Treuil, 1992) being the best examples.
The activities of bioarchaeologists have been oriented
towards the
thematic
pioneer research of Neolithic
palaeoeconomy. In this regard, R. Dennell studied the
archaeobotanical assemblages of such Neolithic sites as
Chavdar and Kazanlak in Bulgaria. Dennell established an
alternative approach which suggested that the economic
value of a Neolithic plant resource can be ascertained by
considering its context within the crop-processing activities
of a site or area (Dennell, 1972; 1974; 1976). The research of
Dennell has opened up new avenues in onsite archaeological
interpretations, certainly in comparison to the older common
approach of recording the presence/absence of economic
plant species in archaeobotanical assemblages. R. Dennell
also worked with the archaeozoologist G. Kovačev and
attempted to provide a complete onsite bioarchaeological
picture of the plants and animals. Likewise, P. Halstead has
contributed much to the research area of archaeozoology. He
has published a series of papers focused on archaeozoological
data of the Neolithic and Bronze Age (Halstead, 1981; 1989).
In so doing he has attempted to ascertain the potential of
archaeozoological material in helping to identify the part of
large-scale pastoral specialization versus small-scale stock
husbandry as a component of mixed farming. His concept
has opened up such phenomena as the large-scale exchange
of animals for meat and the identifcation of “producer
sites” and “consumer sites”, as well as the issues of milking,
dairying and similar phenomena (Halstead, 1996).
In the southern regions of the Balkans in the 1980s
and 1990s, local specialists were also active, such as E.
Chakalova and Z. Popova in Bulgaria (see Kreuz
et al.
,
2017). A substantial shift has been recorded in the last
decade towards the adoption of a multi-proxy approach: a
new trend in the bioarchaeological research of Neolithic
sites. In contrast to the best monothematic studies of the
1970s and 1980s, the multi-proxy approach is based on the
synergy of two or more analytical methods. The combination
of particular methods has been steeply increasing in number
up until today (Marinova, Thiebault, 2008; Karkanas
et al.
,
2011; Pappa
et al.
, 2013; Garnier, Valamoti, 2016; Marinova,
Ntinou, 2017; Kreuz, Marinova, 2017; Ivanova
et al.
, 2018;
Whitford, 2018). In the last 10–15 years, the “critical mass”
of specialists and awareness of the necessity to apply multi-
proxy approaches has increased. Such synthesis should
indeed become “state of the art” in the future (Allen
et al.
,
2017; Ethier
et al.
, 2017; Marinova
et al.
, 2016; Krauß
et al.
,
2017; 2018). Transdisciplinary studies constitute present-
day research and the near future for prehistoric
onsite
archaeology.
Archaeobotanical research is still rare for archaeological
excavation in this study region of the Balkans. It is due to the
lack of specialists and the technical difculty of sampling in
archaeological feld research – and the time-consuming work
involved in the post-excavational phase. On the other hand,
archaeobotany can contribute to resolving palaeoeconomical
questions and trace the forms of human behaviour on a
specifc prehistoric site in great detail.
1.2 Natural setting of the southern Balkans
and its Neolithic sites
Geographically, the southern Balkans region is very variable:
its surface is predominantly mountainous. The climate of
the coastal regions difers from that inland, it being more
continental. Most of the southern Balkans is dominated by a
Mediterranean climate, particularly for the area of Thessaly
and Greek Macedonia. Towards the north the climate passes to
a sub-Mediterranean environment with lower average annual
temperatures in the valleys of the rivers Vardar, Haliacmon,
Lower Struma and Maritsa (Trifunovski, 1998; Ivanova
et al.
,
2018). Altitude is an important infuence on temperature and
humidity. Due to the melting of the mountain snow cover and
other sufcient sources of water, the Balkan region is rich in
lakes, rivers and wetlands (Grifths
et al.
, 2004).
The southern part of the region is today covered by
evergreen sclerophyll vegetation, constrained by warm,
dry summers and rainy winters (Prach
et al.
, 2009).
The southernmost areas of mainland Greece and Greek
Macedonia are covered by Mediterranean vegetation
characterized by evergreen hardwood forest (with a diverse
species composition) combined with alluvial forest (Bohn
et al.
, 2000/2003). In north-facing river valleys, including
the area of Pelagonia, these Mediterranean habitats are
alternated with sub-Mediterranean oak forests (dominated
by
Quercus ilex, Q. coccifera, Q. trojana, Q. macedonica
)
with hornbeam (
Carpinus betulus
) and ash (
Fraxinus ornus
).
Higher altitudes include Sub-mediterranean Mountain
forests dominated by beech and pine trees (Walter, 1985;
Marinova, Ntinou, 2017). An important tree species in the
study area is
Cornus mas:
used in the Neolithic period for the
construction of fences and wattle-and-daub structures, while
its fruits were also collected (Marinova
et al.
, 2013).
Palaeoecological research already ofers much rich and
well-structured data for the reconstruction of the Holocene
vegetation – and the natural conditions of the Neolithic
period in particular. The archaeobotanical data provides
comprehensive knowledge about plant macroremains, pollen
or charcoal, as well as many other aspects of palaeoecology
(Marinova
et al.
, 2012; Cvetkoska
et al.
, 2014; Thienemann
et al.
, 2016; Lespez
et al.
, 2016; Marinova, Ntinou, 2017).
Neolithic settlements were concentrated near water
and natural raw material sources. In southeast Europe,
there are two types of Neolithic settlement (Figure 1). The
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Jaromír Beneš, Goce Naumov, Tereza Majerovičová, Kristýna Budilová, Jiří Bumerl, Veronika Komárková, Jaromír Kovárník, Michaela Vychronová, Lucie Juřičková:
An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
123
frst type is a horizontal settlement (in other words – fat,
extended) with a single layer of settlement (Tolevski, 2009;
Nikolov
et al.
, 2015; Pappa
et al.
, 2004; Vuković
et al.
, 2016).
The second type is the tell settlement site, which constitutes
several settled horizons, due to which the stratigraphy of the
settlement is often high – sometimes up to several metres
(Rosenstock, 2006; Nikolov, 2007; Darcque
et al.
, 2007;
Naumov, 2016). Settlements are usually open; however,
fortifed sites have been registered as well (Kotsakis, 1999;
Raczky, 2015). The considerable stratigraphy of
tells demonstrates how deep was the attachment between
the inhabitants of a tell and its settled area. However, some
tells constitute only two settled horizons and the height of
the entire tell is not particularly signifcant; these tells could
therefore be a kind of transitional form between the fat site
and the tell-type settlement (Kreuz, Marinova, 2017).
The Neolithic tell settlements are initially established in the
region of Thessaly and further dispersed along the tributaries
Figure 1.
Location of Neolithic settlements in the southern Balkans. Settlements are divided by type. Explanatory notes: Legend explanations: S – unspecifed
type of settlement, C – cave, FS – fat settlement, FS-F – fat settlement with fortifcation, T – tell, T-F – tell with fortifcation, T-FS-F – Tell with surrounding
fat settlement and fortifcation. Source:
EnviroBalkan
database (LAPE USB České Budějovice). Data and visualisation: T. Majerovičová, J. Bumerl.
1 – Pavlovac, 2 – Piperkov Chifik, 3 – Bersin, 4 – Nevestino, 5 – Vaksevo, 6 – Priboy, 7 – Negovantsi, 8 – Pernik, 9 – Galabnik, 10 – Kremenik, 11 – Kraynitsi,
12 – Kamenik, 13 – Mursalevo, 14 – Drenkovo, 15 – Balgarchevo, 16 – Dobrinishte, 17 – Brezhani, 18 – Ilindentsi, 19 – Kovachevo, 20 – Kremikovtsi,
21 – Slatina, 22 – Slatina Gradini, 23 – Eleshnitsa, 24 – Chavdar, 25 – Ginova mogila, 26 – Rakitovo, 27 – Kapitan Dimitrievo, 28 – Dabene – Pishtikova
mogila, 29 – Chernichevo – „Manastirya“, 30 – Plovdiv, 31 – Plovdiv – Yassatepe, 32 – Kuklen, 33 – Muldava, 34 – Muldava, 35 – Kazanlak, 36 – Azmak I,
37 – Stara Zagora, 38 – Karanovo, 39 – Yabalkovo, 40 – Chavdarova Chesma, 41 – Karadzhali, 42 – Krumovgrad, 43 – Veselinovo, 44 – Mlado Nagoričane,
45 – Tumba Madjari, 46 – Gorobinci, 47 – Amzabegovo, 48 – Vršnik, 49 – Kanli Čair, 50 – Stranata Angelci, 51 – Zelenikovo, 52 – Mramor, 53 – Dzuniver,
54 – Resava, 55 – Vrbjanska Čuka, 56 – Topolčani, 57 – Porodin, 58 – Veluška Tumba, 59 – Avgi, 60 – Dispilio, 61 – Servia, 62 – Servia, 63 – Platia
Magoula Zarkou, 64 – Makrychori, 65 – Galini, 66 – Rachmani, 67 – Argissa, 68 – Sykeon, 69 – Prodromos, 70 – Myrrini, 71 – Tsangli, 72 – Sesklo,
73 – Dimini, 74 – Pevkakia, 75 – Elateia, 76 – Lerna, 77 – Franchthi, 78 – Agia Triada, 79 – Mandalo, 80 – Nea Nikomedeia, 81 – Yannitsa, 82 – Archondiko,
83 – Paliambela, 84 – Makriyalos, 85 – Stavroupolis,86 – Thermi, 87 – Vassilika, 88 – Mesimeriany, 89 – Promachon Topolnica, 90 – Dimitra, 91 – Sitagroi,
92 – Kryoneri, 93 – Dikili Tash, 94 – Lafrouda, 95 – Krovili, 96 – Makri.
0 500 km
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Jaromír Beneš, Goce Naumov, Tereza Majerovičová, Kristýna Budilová, Jiří Bumerl, Veronika Komárková, Jaromír Kovárník, Michaela Vychronová, Lucie Juřičková:
An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
124
of the great river networks, such as the Haliacmon, Vardar,
Crna, Struma, Mesta and Maritsa and the rivers of the Thrace
area (Kotsakis, 1999; Bailey, 1999; Naumov, 2018; Ivanova
et al.
, 2018). There is also a high concentration of Neolithic
tell sites in the Pelagonia valley (Naumov, 2016), a region
that will be a case study focus in this paper. The extent of
the observed region of the southern Balkans is bounded in
the north by the Stara Planina Mountains in Bulgaria and
the rivers South Morava and Western Morava that merge
in southern-central Serbia. According to several authors,
this is the area of the frst wave of Neolithic occupation
that spread through southeast Europe, dated to the period
between 6700/6500 and 5500 BC (Bailey, 2000; Pèrles,
2001; Rosenstock, 2006; Raczky, 2015).
1.3 The tell of Vrbjanska Čuka
Vrbjanska Čuka is a tell located in the northern part of
Pelagonia, the largest valley in the Republic of Macedonia.
The site is positioned approximately 1.5 km south-east of the
villages of Vrbjani and Slavej, in the alluvial plain partially
surrounded by the Buševa, Dautica, Babuna and Selečka
mountains, and separated from the southern Pelagonian
part by the Topolčanska Greda hills (Figure 2). Nowadays
the rivers Blato and Prilepska are major sources of water
supply, but before the establishment of irrigation systems in
the 1960s there were also a number of smaller rivers and
marshes in this area (Trifunovski, 1998).
Vrbjanska Čuka was discovered at the end of 1970s
when its location began to be exploited for sand extraction.
Figure 2.
Map of Pelagonia with the location
of the Vrbjanska Čuka tell. Visualisation:
J. Bumerl.
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Jaromír Beneš, Goce Naumov, Tereza Majerovičová, Kristýna Budilová, Jiří Bumerl, Veronika Komárková, Jaromír Kovárník, Michaela Vychronová, Lucie Juřičková:
An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
125
Subsequently the damage to the site was halted and
archaeological campaigns were initiated in 1979 that
lasted until 1989, with an interruption between 1982
and 1987 (Kitanoski, 1989). The research, directed by
the Museum of Prilep, was focused on the central part of
the tell, where several trenches were excavated. These
excavations provided some of the frst information on the
Neolithic in the northern part of Pelagonia and established
this site as one of its major representatives. Study of the
archaeological material has indicated that the site belongs
to the Velušina-Porodin group, mainly due to the distinct
features of the specifc, white-painted patterns on its earliest
pottery, anthropomorphic house models and tablet-“altars”
(Mitkoski, 2005; Temelkoski, Mitkoski, 2005a; Temelkoski,
Mitkoski, 2005b). In terms of its architecture, a large building
was unearthed that was considered a “sanctuary” with a large
daub installation referred to as an “altar” (Kitanoski
et al.
,
1990). Later, the identifcation of this building and structure
has been reconsidered and its function discussed (Mitkoski,
Naumov, 2008).
Due to its specifc features and the potential for more
comprehensive research on Vrbjanska Čuka, a new
excavation campaign was initiated in 2016 and it is still
ongoing (Naumov
et al
., 2016; 2018a; 2018b). The project
is directed by the Center for Prehistoric Research and is
focused on multidisciplinary research that integrates the
work of several Macedonian and European institutions,
such as: excavation, prospection, topography, GIS analysis,
study of fnds and architecture (Center for Prehistoric
Research, Museum of Prilep and Institute for Old Slavic
Culture); archaeobotany (University of South Bohemia);
archaeozoology, 3D-modelling, isotope and lipid analysis
(Biosense Institute); use-wear analysis and radiocarbon
dating (Spanish National Research Council); geological
research (Institute for Mining and Geology of Macedonia);
building techniques analysis (Free University Berlin);
geomagnetic scanning (Pryncipat-Krakow); digital
measuring (University of Primorska); and radiocarbon
dating (University of Bern). This multidisciplinary approach,
with the involvement of various specialists, has provided an
entirely novel perspective of the Vrbjanska Čuka tell and
enabled a more thorough understanding of the frst farming
communities in Pelagonia and in the Republic of Macedonia
in general (Naumov
et al.
, 2018a).
The recent study indicates that the tell was approximately
130 m wide and 4 m high, but with only 1.80 m of
archaeological stratigraphy (Figure 3), thus confrming
the natural bulk of sand from a lake of Neogene origin, on
which the tell was established in the Neolithic (Naumov
et al
., 2016; Arsovski, 1997; Dumurdzanov
et al
., 2004).
Such an elevated position was most likely used because
of the frequent foods and marshy environment that have
been demonstrated by the geological research in the region
(Trifunovski, 1998; Naumov
et al
., 2018a). Geomagnetic
scanning has demonstrated the presence of approximately
25 buildings enclosed by a ditch for the protection of the
settlement from conficts, fre, water or for the control of
animals. The excavations have indicated seven buildings
made of wattle and daub or wood, with some consisting
of large constructions, such as Building 1 and Building 2
that have a system of bins, storage and cereal-processing
installations, ovens and a high quantity of grinding stones,
giving evidence of the dynamic activity related to the
production of four and bread (Naumov
et al
., 2018a).
The cereal-focused economy is further confrmed by the
large number of fint tools that were used as harvesting
sickles. Regarding its farming economy, the Vrbjanska
Čuka community herded and consumed cattle as much
as caprovines, and to a lesser extent pigs, the latter a rare
practice among the many other Neolithic settlements in
the Balkans. The specifc features of this society are also
evidenced in their material culture, mainly concerning its
Figure 3.
View of the Vrbjanska Čuka tell
from the south (after Naumov
et al.
, 2016).
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An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
126
pottery, fgurines and anthropomorphic house models that
have some visual elements uncommon for other settlements
in Pelagonia. Radiocarbon dating of the site shows it to have
been active at the very beginning of the 6
th
millennium BC,
i.e.
the end of the Early Neolithic (Naumov
et al
., 2018a).
Recent research on Vrbjanska Čuka has also provided a large
set of data regarding its spatial organization and relationship
with neighbouring sites, landscape, farming economy,
building techniques, use-wear, and lipid, isotope and AMS
analysis, that are part of an ongoing study process, as well as
the data from the archaeobotanical research that is the major
focus of this paper.
The landscape setting of Vrbjanska Čuka and its
archaeological features has stimulated a comprehensive
archaeobotanical research programme in association with
the Archaeobotanical summer schools (2016–2018). The
aim for season 2016 was to estimate the bioarchaeological
potential of the site through several bioarchaeological
methods, in particular, archaeobotany (plant macroremains,
plant microremains) and archaeozoology (malacological
analysis).
1
Specifc goals were targeted on the Neolithic
layers content, such as the composition of useful plants in
the macroremains record and plant use as refected in the
evidence of phytoliths and starch remains.
2. Material and Methods
Research on the organic remains from the Vrbjanska Čuka
tell is being undertaken from two main methodological
standpoints. The frst one deals with the general
archaeobotanical context within the framework of current
bioarchaeological research. This was the main reason why
a database of sites and the literature related to the Neolithic
archaeology of southern part of the Balkans was prepared
with particular attention to bioarchaeology and environmental
archaeology (
EnviroBalkan,
see also Majerovičová, 2018).
2
This has formed the basis for the comparison of our data
from Vrbjanska Čuka within the broader geographical
context of the Neolithic period. The second methodological
standpoint includes our own bioarcheological multi-proxy
approach working with the synergy that comes from several
analytical methods.
2.1 Multi-proxy approach in archaeobotany
and the character of sampled layers and contexts
The multi-proxy approach in bioarchaeology is today the
dominant mode of an onsite archaeological approach (
e.g.
Neumann
et al.
, 2009; Grabowski, Linderholm, 2014;
1
The major archeozoological research (analysis of animal bones) is
performed by specialists from the Biosense Institute and Beograd
University (Novi Sad, Serbia) in a parallel project whose preliminary
results are published in Naumov
et al.
, 2018a.
2
EnviroBalkan is an internal database owned by the Laboratory of
Archaeobotany and Palaeoecology USB comprising electronically
stored literature as well as metadata concerning the environmental and
bioarchaeological research in the Balkans.
Shillito, 2017; Devos
et al.
, 2017). The advantage comes
from the synergy between its particular methods, which
are able to record and explain crop and other botanical and
biological remains from diferent perspectives and at various
scales. The map (Figure 4) shows those settlements of the
region that were explored by bioarchaeological analyses
and have been recorded in international or other accessible
literature. It indicates the analyses of phytoliths, starch,
pollen, botanical macroremains, animal bones and molluscs.
The most comprehensively researched settlements and best
examples in the southern Balkans up to now are the sites
of Sitagroi, Dispilio, and Argissa. The most frequent kind
of bioarchaeological analysis concerns animal bones and
botanical macroremains. Frequently a combination of both
methods is used at one site; however, the combination of
more methods is still comparatively rare.
The analysis of plant microremains is generally very
rare. Several phytolith studies were performed within the
excavations of the Neolithic period. At the pottery Neolithic
village Makri in northern Greece, phytolith analysis was
combined with an ethnographic study of the agropastoral
community living in the same area, comparing samples
from both archaeological and recent reference contexts
(Tsartsidou
et al.
, 2009). Another study successfully
examined the domestic and ritual use of plants in the Neolithic
cave of Alepotrypa in the southern Peloponnese, with a focus
on phytolith evidence, wood charcoal analysis and recent
vegetation, which was processed for a reference collection
(Ntinou, Tsartsidou, 2017). Along with geophysical methods
and a micro-stratigraphic examination, phytolith analysis also
played a role in understanding the formation processes of two
Neolithic tell sites located by the ancient Sebes-Körös river on
the Great Hungarian Plain (Parkinson
et al
., 2018). Although
phytolith analysis can be successfully applied in various
archaeological situations, there is still plenty of methodological
issues which must be considered when sampling, analyzing
and interpreting results (see Shillito, 2013).
2.2 Methodology of botanical macroremains analysis
Archaeobotanical material from the Vrbjanska Čuka 2016
feld season was obtained by test sampling of archaeological
contexts. Samples were taken from diferent contexts
from the site and from a section in the western part of the
excavated area (profle W1). Although Vrbjanska Čuka is
a multistratigraphic site, the main efort in the pilot feld
season of 2016 was put into the sampling of Neolithic
contexts. For the pilot analysis, 8 samples from various parts
of four quadrants were sampled by the team of Macedonian
archaeologists and a further seven control samples were taken
by the Czech team from the western section (Figure 5, 6) of
the trench. Profle W1 was primarily sampled for phytolith
analysis, so the volumes of W1 samples were only 5–10
litres per sample. The number of identifed seeds of the W1
profle was included in the total amount of all seeds, but due
to their small predictive value, they will not be discussed
in this paper. All the samples of dry sediment, with a total
volume of 404 l, were processed by water fotation using
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Jaromír Beneš, Goce Naumov, Tereza Majerovičová, Kristýna Budilová, Jiří Bumerl, Veronika Komárková, Jaromír Kovárník, Michaela Vychronová, Lucie Juřičková:
An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
127
a modifed version of an Ankara machine (Pearsall, 2015,
pp. 50–51) with a sieve of 0.25 mm mesh size. The heavy
fractions (residuals) from fotations were dried and inspected
(Cappers, Neef, 2012, p. 231). Laboratory identifcation of
the light fraction was carried out with a stereomicroscope
using the standard determination approach (Jacomet, Kreuz,
1999) and subsequently compared with identifcation keys
(Anderberg, 1994; Berggen, 1969; 1981; Jacomet, 2006;
Cappers
et al
., 2006).
Anthracological material from the Neolithic levels of
profle W1 was analysed. Charcoal was separated during
plant macroremains processing. Analysis of charcoal pieces
was carried out using the Nicon Eclipse 80i light microscope
and the fndings were compared with the anatomical atlas
of microscopic wood (Schweingruber, 1978; 1990) and with
the reference collection of LAPE USB České Budějovice.
Charcoal was very rare among the macroremains (only 10
identifable pieces) and thus the anthracological analysis
only tested the possibilities for future research.
Archaeological units sampled for analysis of botanical
macroremains:
•
Unit 11 is compact sediment full with river shells and
Neolithic red fne pottery.
•
Unit 12 is compact sediment just above Building 2
that has been used due to occupation activities in the
Neolithic after life at the level of Building 2.
•
Unit 18 has the same features as 12,
i.e.
a level above
the daub of Building 2 and below the daub of Unit 6,
i.e.
in between two Neolithic layers.
•
Unit 26 is a pit with later origin that cannot be confrmed
as Neolithic, although there is also Neolithic pottery,
but Medieval as well.
•
Unit 29 is a layer of soil beneath and around the pit
Units 25, 26, 27, 28,
i.e.
the Neolithic level disturbed
by these later pits.
•
Unit 51 is white-greyish soil most likely of ash that is
besides Building 2 and the one next to it and belongs
to the Neolithic levels.
•
Unit 58 is daub belonging to Building 4 associated
with the wall of the bigger structure bin/silo that is also
Neolithic.
2.3 Methodology of botanical microremains and
character of sampled materials
Botanical microremains analysis is represented in Vrbjanska
Čuka by phytolith and starch analyses. Phytoliths are
microscopical particles of amorphous SiO
2
(biogenic
Opal–A), which are created in cells, cell walls and the
intercellular space of plant bodies (Piperno, 2006). They
are formed in various shapes and due to their chemical
resistance can provide information concerning decomposed
plant material after thousands of years. Phytolith analysis
is a method of optical microscopy which has been widely
used for enlightening archaeological situations in recent
decades (see,
e.g.
Pearsall, 1982; Rosen, 1995). Phytoliths
can be extracted from the soil samples of various contexts
and features, as well as from residues found on pottery,
stonework and other types of artefacts.
On the Vrbjanska Čuka archaeological site, in 2016,
sampling of a section (W1) in the western side of a trench
was made to obtain material in order to recognise the
presence and quality of phytoliths on the site. The section,
150 cm deep, was divided into seven samples, according
to the archaeological knowledge of the stratigraphy of the
Figure 4.
The map indicates settlement
sites in the southern Balkans where onsite
environmental analyses were conducted.
The map displays settlements as graphs,
which show where the analyses of
macroremains, microremains (phytoliths,
pollen, starch) and archaeozoology (animal
bones, malacofauna) have been carried out.
Black lines and numbers: archaeobotanical
“phylogenetic” regions (after Coward
et al.
,
2008, see also Shennan, 2017). Source:
EnviroBalkan
database (LAPE USB České
Budějovice). Data and visualisation:
T. Majerovičová, J. Bumerl.
0 500 km
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An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
128
tell. One sample from a related context (Unit 11) at the base
level of the profle was also taken for initial analysis. From
an archaeological point of view, the profle enters a space
around the western edge of Building 2.
Samples from profle W1:
•
Sample 01: 0 cm (603.64 m asl) – 23 cm, grey with
orange daub + human bones.
•
Sample 02: 23 cm – 53 cm, grey with pebbles + small
daub, Medieval period horizon.
•
Sample 03: 53 cm – 74 cm, light grey with artefacts,
Classical period horizon.
•
Sample 04: 74 cm – 103 cm, light grey with small
gravel, Neolithic horizon.
•
Sample 05: 103 cm – 126 cm, light grey powder,
Neolithic horizon.
•
Sample 06: 126 cm – 132 cm, light grey with pebbles,
small fne, Neolithic horizon.
•
Sample 07: 132 cm – 140 cm, above foor level,
Neolithic horizon.
•
Sample Unit 11: compact layer with content of river
mussels and red painted Neolithic pottery.
Phytoliths were separated from soil samples following
the principles of the methods designed by Albert and Weiner
(2001), with the help of an ultrasonic cleaner used in between
steps for better loosening of single particles (Lombardo
et al
.,
2016). Due to the potential-testing character of the initial
analysis, the sediment was not dried and weighed throughout
the process, thus the quantitative aspects of the analysis must,
for now, be omitted. Most of the steps of separation were
performed in 50 ml polypropylene tubes with two grams of
sediment sieved on 0.4 mm and centrifugation at 2500 rpm.
In between separation steps, the pellets were washed in
distilled water by centrifugation several times, to make sure
that diferent chemicals subsequently used in the process did
not react with any residual chemical remaining. Content of
calcium carbonates was detected by adding hydrochloric
acid (6M HCl) to each sample and the level of fzzing was
recorded on a scale 0–5. Clays were removed by binding on
sodium hexametaphosphate (50g/1l solution, Na(PO
3
)
6
and
organic material was than dissolved by adding hydrogen
peroxide (30% H
2
O
2
). The acid insoluble fraction (AIF) was
obtained by putting concentrated nitric acid (65% HNO
3
)
Figure 5.
Section W1 in the western part of the trench. Visualisation:
J. Bumerl.
Figure 6.
Section in the western wall of the
Vrbjanska Čuka tell. Photo: J. Beneš.
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An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
129
and boiling the tubes in a water bath, after which a heavy
liquid separation of phytoliths was performed by sodium
polytungstate (SPT) calibrated at a density of 2.35 g/cm
3
.
Phytoliths were observed and photographed at 400× or
200× magnifcation under a Nikon Eclipse 80i polarizing
microscope, using distilled water or Euparal epoxide as a
medium. Morphotypes were preferably described according
to the International Code for Phytolith Nomenclature (ICPN)
(Madella
et al
., 2005). The presence of morphotypes in the
samples was recorded taking some efort to register all the
morphotypes, but there were also many phytoliths present
whose shape could not be determined to a satisfactory level
of certainty, including particles too small to be described
with 400× magnifcation, whose description is a matter of
future analysis.
Sampling for starch analysis was carried out at the
Vrbjanska Čuka site or at the Institute for Old Slavic Culture
in Prilep. The material that was processed were stone tools
(grinders). Some grinding stones were documented, packed
by archaeologists at the site, and processed in a room,
prepared for analysis. Samples were taken from the surfaces
of chosen objects by a non-destructive method. The objects
were cleaned from the remains of the soil in which they were
preserved. Samples were mainly taken from small cavities
and cracks in which there is theoretically the greatest chance
of preserving the microscopic parts of the processed plant
materials. They were collected using a micro-pipette and
a dropper. Distilled water was dripped into the surface
structure and then the dissolved material was taken from
the surface by micro-pipette. The sampled liquid was then
injected into a micro tube (Therin
et al
., 1997). Samples were
stored in micro tubes with an alcohol solution. Samples were
then transported to the refrigerator as quickly as possible
(Therin
et al
., 1997). Due to the relatively short duration of
the archaeobotanical mission and limited transport capacity,
samples for starch analysis were primarily taken from stone
tools.
Microscopic analysis of the chemically-treated and
separated samples was performed on a light polarization
microscope. The microscopic station is equipped with a
digital sensor, recording device and software for processing
and analysis (measuring). Identifcation was based on an
optical assessment and digital measurement of the shape
and size of starch grains (Reichert, 1913; Piperno, 2006;
Torrence
et al
., 2006; Moss, 1976).
2.4 Method of malacological analysis from fotation
samples
Malacological material, represented by small-scale snails
obtained by fotation during analysis of plant macroremains
(micro-molluscs) from season 2016, was observed and
documented under a stereomicroscope and species were then
determined (Ložek, 1964).
Hand-collected faunal remains, animal bones from the
2016 campaign, were analysed by a Serbian team from
Belgrade from the Biosense Institute and are not the subject
of this paper, but the preliminary results are provided
(Naumov
et al.
, 2018a). In addition, faunal remains collected
by archaeobotanical fotation were studied in order to gain
more information on the taxon/element distribution with
respect to sampling techniques,
i.e.
information on smaller
taxa which were potentially used as food or inhabited the
surroundings of the site.
3. Results
3.1 Plant macroremains
Floated samples of light fraction contained charred and
uncharred plant remains, molluscs, and charcoal pieces,
and some of them contained small animal bones and
entomofauna. Most of the residuals contained pieces of
ceramic, small animal bones, mussels, occasionally charcoal
pieces and macroremains. A total of 7,770 macroremains
were counted and determined (3,562 charred and 4,208
in an uncharred state). The charred plant macroremains
represented a smaller part of the assemblage, and in general,
lots of them were fragmented or did not exhibit important
morphological characteristics for identifcation to species,
thus they were determined to genus only. Wild plants of the
recent vegetation growing around the site today represented
most of the macroremains in an uncharred state. Therefore,
only charred seeds will be commented on and presented in
this paper. Given that the analysed material from the 2016
season will be discussed in the future with other experts,
the results of the macroremains presented in Table 1 contain
only the presence and absence of taxons. The complete
results of the research seasons in 2016, 2017 and 2018 will
be published separately together with statistical analyses in
the future.
Although, as mentioned above, there was an attempt to
sample the Neolithic contexts, some of the analysed species
of cereals in the samples from Quadrant 23 (as you can see
in Table 1, for example. samples 1, 3 and 6), are not typical
cultivated crops of the Neolithic period in the Southern Balkan
region. Sample 3 (Quadrant 23/Unit 26) was taken from the
flling of the pit where the Neolithic and Medieval ceramic
artefacts were found. The most numerous type of cereal
(over 1200 grains) from this pit was
Panicum miliaceum
–
millet (Figure 7f). Apart of this the grains (14 fnds) of
Secale
cereale
– rye (Figure 7e), one grain of
Triticum spelta
(spelt)
and
Triticum
cf.
spelta
, more than 20 grains of free-threshing
wheat
Triticum aestivum
(bread wheat), and lot of fragments
of cereal grains were found here. Sample 1 (Quadrant 23/
Unit 29) was taken from the layer of the Neolithic level which
was disturbed by younger pits, for example, by Unit 26. In
the case of the cereals, a certain similarity was observed in
this sample (
i.e.
fve grains of
Panicum miliaceum
and two
grains of
Secale cereale,
one grain of
Triticum
cf.
spelta
and
T. spelta/dicoccum
), with small diferences in the presence of
other useful species. A similar composition to that in sample
3 (
i.e.
the presence of over one hundred grains of millet, and
a few grains of rye and bread wheat) was observed in sample
6 of the Neolithic Unit 58.
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Jaromír Beneš, Goce Naumov, Tereza Majerovičová, Kristýna Budilová, Jiří Bumerl, Veronika Komárková, Jaromír Kovárník, Michaela Vychronová, Lucie Juřičková:
An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
130
Table 1.
Presence and absence of charred macroremains in samples. Note: g – grain; f – fruit; s – seed; e – endocarp; gb – glume base; sf – spikelet – fork.
SampleW1/1W1/2W1/3
W1/4W/5W1/6W1/712345678
Quadrant
2326233131232231
Unit 2929261812585111
Volume (L)551075557569353750
404412
Plant taxa
Cereals
cf
. Avena
g
x
Hordeum vulgare
g
x
xxxxxxxxx
Panicum miliaceum
g
x
x
xx
Secale cereale
g
x
x
x
Setaria
cf. v
erticillata
g
x
Triticum aestivum
g
x
x
Triticum
cf.
aestivum
g
x
x
Triticum aestivum/compactum
g
x
x
Triticum
sp
.
g
x
x
xxx
xx
Triticum
sp
.
gb
xxxxxx
x
xxx
x
Triticum
sp
.
sf
x
x
Triticum monococcum
g
xxxx
x
Triticum monococcum
sf
x
x
xx
x
Triticum monococcum
gb
xx
x
x
Triticum
cf.
monococcum
g
x
x
Triticum dicoccum
g
xxx
Triticum dicoccum
sf
xx
x
Triticum dicoccum
gb
xx
Triticum
cf.
dicoccum
g
x
x
Triticum spelta
g
x
Triticum
cf.
spelta
g
x
x
Triticum spelta/dicoccon
g
x
x
Cerealiag
xxx
x
xxxxxxxx
Legumes/pulses
Fabaceae
s
xx
xx
xxxxxxx
Lathyrus
sp.s
x
Lens culinaris
s
xxxxxxxxx
cf.
Lens culinaris
s
x
xx
Medicago minima
s
x
x
Medicago
cf.
minima
s
x
Medicago polymorpha
f
x
Medicago
sp.s
x
Pisum/Vicia
s
x
xxx
xxx
Pisum sativum
s
x
x
Trifolium/Medicago
s
x
Trifolium
cf.
repens
s
x
Trifolium
sp.s
xxx
x
x
Possible edible wild plants
cf.
Ficus carica
s
x
Fragaria/Potentilla
s
x
Prunus
sp.e
x
x
x
Rosa
sp.s
x
Rubus fruticosus
agg.
s
xx
Rubus
sp.s
x
x
Sambucus ebulus
s
x
x
x
x
Sambucus
cf.
racemosa
s
x
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An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
131
Sambucus
sp.s
xx
x
Vitis vinifera
s
x
Wild plants/weeds
Agrostemma githago
s
x
Ajuga chamaepitys
s
x
Anthemis cotula
s
x
Arenaria serpyllifolia
s
x
Asteraceae
s
x
Bromus
sp.g
x
x
x
Carex
2D sp.
s
x
Carex
3D sp.
s
x
x
Cerastium
sp.
s
x
Convolvolus arvensis
s
x
Cyperaceae
s
x
x
xxx
Fallopia convolvulus
s
xx
x
x
Fumaria ofcinalis
s
xx
Galium aparine
s
x
Galium
cf.
aparine
s
xx
x
Galium
sp.
s
xx
x
x
xx
xxx
Galium spurium
s
x
xxx
xx
Galium verum
s
x
Galium
cf.
verum
s
x
Galium/Veronica
s
x
Geranium pusillum
s
x
x
x
Hypericum
sp.s
x
cf.
Chelidonium majus
s
x
Chenopodium album
s
x
xx
xx
Chenopodium
sp.s
xx
xxxxxxx
Lamiaceae
s
x
xx
x
cf.
Malva
s
x
Neslia paniculata
s
x
xxx
x
Panicum/Milium
g
x
Panicum/Setaria
g
x
Papaver rhoaes
s
x
Papaver
sp
.
s
x
x
Plantago
sp.s
x
x
Poaceae
s
x
xx
xxx
Polycnemum arvense
s
x
x
x
x
x
Polygonum aviculare
s
x
x
x
Prunella
sp.s
x
Rumex
sp.s
x
xxxx
xxx
Setaria
sp.g
x
x
x
Silene viscaria
s
x
Stellaria
sp.s
x
x
Thymus
sp.
s
x
Verbena ofcinalis
s
x
x
Veronica hederifolia
s
x
x
Veronica
cf.
hederifolia
s
xx
Veronica
cf.
praecox
s
xx
x
Veronica
sp.s
x
xx
Viola
sp.s
x
x
Table 1.
Presence and absence of charred macroremains in samples. Note: g – grain; f – fruit; s – seed; e – endocarp; gb – glume base; sf – spikelet – fork.
(
Continuation
)
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Jaromír Beneš, Goce Naumov, Tereza Majerovičová, Kristýna Budilová, Jiří Bumerl, Veronika Komárková, Jaromír Kovárník, Michaela Vychronová, Lucie Juřičková:
An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
132
Figure 7.
Charred macroremains: a –
Triticum monococcum
(lateral);
b –
Triticum dicoccum
(lateral); c – spikelet fork of
Triticum monococcum
; d –
Hordeum
vulgare
(ventral); e –
Secale cereale
(lateral); f –
Panicum miliaceum
(ventral); g –
Triticum aestivum/compactum
(ventral); h –
Lens culinaris
; i –
Pisum
sativum
; j –
Galium
sp.; k –
Chenopodium
sp.; l –
Fallopia convolvulus.
Photos: M. Vychronová.
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An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
133
Table 2.
Occurence of phytolith morphotypes and calcium carbonate content (0–5) in samples from W1 profle and a nearby foor level (U11).
Data by K. Budilová.
Name/ W1 Samples 1234567U11
Grass phytoliths –
Poaceae
family
dendriticxxxxxxxx
elongate echinate
xxxxxxxx
inforescence skeletonxxxxxxxx
papillae
xxxxxxxx
rondelxxxxx
saddle1xxxxxxxx
saddle2xxxxx
trapeziform short cellxxxx
trapeziform sinuate/polylobatexx
bilobate short cell
xxxxxxx
polylobatexxxxxxxx
elongate castellate
xxx
elongate sinuate
xxxxxxxx
elongate sinuate oblong
xxxxxx
elongate psilate
xxxxxxxx
stems/leaves skeleton psilatexxxxxxxx
stomata/ skeleton with stomataxxxxxx
cuneiform bulliform
xxxxxxxx
conjoined bulliformsxxxx
rectangular/square bulliform/parallepipedalxxxxxx
shield-shaped trichomexxxxxxxx
cross
xx
Sedge phytoliths –
Cyperaceae
family
cone/hatxxx
Woody/dicotyledonous phytoliths
trichome (unknown origin)xxxxx
elongate oblong psilate
xxxxxx
elongate prismatic psilate
xxxx
other skeleton
xxxxxxx
oval spherical psilatexxxxxxx
tracheidxx
extra long bulbuous psilatexxxxx
small globular psilate
xxxx
polyhedralx
polyhedral pittedx
globular granulate
xxx
globular pitted dottedxx
long cell pitted - woodyx
blocky perforated rectangular psilatexxxx
Silicaeous Algae microfossils - diatomsx
x
x
Number of described morphotypes2616
22
2027252730
Calcium carbonate content (0-5)00535334
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An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
134
Figure 8.
Phytoliths originating in the Neolithic layers of W1 profle: a, c, l, m –
Poaceae
inforescences – skeletons; b –
Poaceae
stems/leaves; d – single
dendritic phytolith, cf.
Triticum
; e – corroded shield-shaped trichome; f –
Poaceae
conjoined bilobates and stems/leaves skeleton; g –
Poaceae
inforescence
skeleton with stomata; h – epidermal silicifed cells (dicots); i – possibly herbaceous phytolith (dicots); j –
Poaceae
stems/leaves, cuneiform bulliform);
k – microcharcoal;
all
400× magnifcation. Photos: K. Budilová.
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An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
135
In other sampled Quadrants, specifcally in the sample from
Quadrant 22/Unit 51, one grain of millet and in Quadrant 31/
Unit 12, one grain of
Triticum aestivum/compactum
(Figure
7g) were also found.
The remains of the charred cultivated plants from the other
contexts were in small numbers (a few fnds) represented by
the hulled cereal
Hordeum vulgare –
barley (Figure 7d), which
was observed in almost each sample. Apart from a few grains
of hulled wheats, such as
Triticum monococcum
– einkorn
(Figure 7a) and
Triticum dicoccum –
emmer (Figure 7b),
some parts of
Triticum
spikelets – glume bases and spikelets
forks (Figure 7c) were identifed, and the total number of
T. spikelet parts exceeds the number of grains. Attention
is currently focused on the possibility of the presence of
spikelet forks of a “new glume type” wheat (Jones
et al
.,
2000), whose determination is still questionable.
Pulses were represented by a single fnd of
Lens culinaris
– lentil (Figure 7h)
, Pisum/Vicia,
which could not be
identifed more closely, and a few seeds of
Pisum sativum
– pea (Figure 7i). The possibly gathered, edible wild plants
were represented rarely by sporadic fnds of a few fragments
of
Prunus
sp.,
Sambucus
spp
.
and
Rubus
sp. Seeds of
Potentilla/Fragaria
and
Rosa
sp. were also recorded. Wild
plant taxa were also represented by single fnds of arable
weeds such as
Fallopia convolvulus
(Figure 7l),
Polygonum
aviculare
,
Galium spurium,
or crop weeds/ruderals such as
Chenopodium
sp. (Figure 7k),
Galium
sp. (Figure 7j),
Rumex
sp. or
Polycnemum arvense
. Some potential grasslands
species such as
Trifolium
sp.,
Medicago
spp.,
Plantago
sp.
were also observed.
The state of the charcoal pieces was very bad, and the
fragments were very small. The size of the charcoal fragments
was on the lower limit for wood anatomic identifcation (2–5
mm) and only 2 fragments of
Pinus
sp. and 2 fragments of
Quercus
sp. were analysed. Such small amounts do not allow
any conclusions to be drawn, except to state the presence of
pine and oak in the Neolithic period around the Vrbjanska
Čuka site.
3.2 Phytoliths
The presence of recognized specifc phytolith morphotypes
and the level of fzzing when dissolving calcium carbonates
(on a scale 0–5) are noted in Table 2. Examples of phytoliths
from layers dated to the Neolithic period are displayed in
Figure 8.
From all of the processed samples we gained enough silica
phytoliths for multiple observations and a successful analysis.
The state of preservation of the phytoliths is generally very
good and allows us to distinguish various characteristics and
taphonomy.
The presence of
Poaceae
species morphotypes is
continuous through the whole profle. The samples contain
many single-cell phytoliths of Festucoid, Panicoid,
Chloridoid and Elongate morphotype-classes (Twiss
et al
.,
1969), indicating a wide spectra of grass species entering
the archaeological sediment. Some elongate echinate/
dendriform phytoliths and their skeletons recovered
from the Neolithic levels closely resemble residues of
Triticum
(Ball
et al
., 1993; Berlin
et al
., 2003; Ball
et al
.,
2017) and
Hordeum
(Madella, 2007), but many other
skeletons of unidentifed chaf were noticed during the
analysis, including inforescences of wild grasses, whose
identifcation is not possible without a relevant reference
collection. Inforescence skeletons with stomata are
sometimes referred to as the residues of common reed
(Ntinou, Tsartsidou, 2017). Rondels, trapezoids and saddles
(possibly trapezoids from top-view), whose presence is
noticeable in the lower part of the profle, are morphotypes
indicating rather xerothermic grasses (Solomonova
et al
.,
2017). Attention should be paid to bilobates, as they have
very good diagnostic potential; Panicoid bilobate shapes
are most common in the sediment but there are also other
bilobate variations, which cannot be simply attributed to
millets (
e.g.
Panicum milliaceum, Setaria
sp. for their
phytoliths, see Lu
et al
., 2009)
and along with some specifc
polylobates they could also have originated from grasses,
whose reference material is not yet available. Phytoliths
from leaves or stems of grasses are represented mainly by
the morphotype cuneiform bulliform and regular elongate
psilate long cells (Piperno, 2006), which also appear in the
form of skeletons.
All the morphotypes and their variations which do not ft
a description of known monocotyledonous (grasses, sedges)
phytoliths must have been sorted as woody/dicot elements.
They appear more often at the lowest levels of the profle
and the variability in their shapes and constellations of non-
grass skeletons is outstanding, which again points to the
remarkably heterogeneous composition of the original plant
material.
Concerning taphonomy, multiple burnt single cells and
skeletons are present and many of the skeletons demonstrate
some kind of specifc type of breakage, with sharp edges and
straight, zig-zagged or concave cuts, but skeletons with non-
sharp or natural edges are also present. Despite the generally
very good state of preservation, some visible corrosion of the
phytoliths appears as well.
The resemblance between the Neolithic layers and sample
nr. 01 (topsoil) can be explained as a consequence of the
deposition of Neolithic soil (excavated in the 1980s) near
the trench. The content of calcium carbonate in the sediment
seems to be rather high (except for the frst two levels,
which demonstrated no fzzing during the test). Possible
contamination of the Neolithic levels by the upper horizons
will be discussed below.
3.3 Starch analysis
In total 19 grinding stones were investigated from the
2016 excavation season (Table 3, Figure 9). From each
artefact were taken several samples. The samples contained
20
Poaceae
starch grains, 4 structures with a
Fabaceae
shape, 1 starch grain probably
Quercus
(needing verifcation
by further observation), and 48 damaged or unidentifed
structures. In this analysis samples from 2016 are processed
and described, this being the frst and preliminary assessment.
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An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
136
3.4 Results of malacological analysis
Nine species of land snails and three species of freshwater
snails were found (Tables 4 and 5, Figure 10). Most of the
species of the land snails are indicative of an open landscape
with short-stemmed vegetation, probably created by grazing.
Three species of gastropods (
Monacha cartusiana, Oxychilus
depressus
and
Vitrea contracta
) indicate a shadier habitat,
probably with shrubs or trees. The detected freshwater
gastropods can inhabit small water reservoirs, overgrown
with macrophytes.
Animal remains (excluding micro-molluscs) are not
treated here in this paper, as they are the subject of analyses
by I. Živaljević and V. Dimitriević. The hand-collected
faunal sample from the 2016 feld season (determined by
I. Živaljević), albeit small, is indicative of a predominantly
stockbreeding economy at the site (Naumov
et al
., 2018a).
The majority of elements originate from domestic animals
– namely cattle and caprines, and to a lesser extent pig and
dog. A single element of a wild boar suggests that occasional
hunting also took place. Large shells of freshwater molluscs
were also identifed. The faunal sample collected by fotation
consisted of smaller bone fragments and the isolated teeth
of previously-identifed mammal taxa. In addition, sporadic
remains of rodents, amphibians (frogs), reptiles and smaller
fsh (small-bodied cyprinids and salmonids) were also found
(Naumov
et al
., 2018a).
4. Discussion
The assemblage of plant macroremains from the 2016
feld season from Vrbjanska Čuka has been subjected to
a preliminary examination as a whole. The main question
was to see to what extent the plant species represented
a similar or diferent structure. Plant species occurrence
at selected Neolithic sites were analysed by multivariate
statistical analysis. The main body of data used came
from the supplementary data published by Colledge
et al.
,
2004: this dataset comprises archaeobotanical assemblages
from Neolithic sites of the Eastern Mediterranean (Levant,
Turkey, Cyprus, Crete and Greece) to which our assemblage
from Vrbjanska Čuka was attached and preliminarily tested
(see the Supplementary material). Binary (presence/absence)
data of agronomically-interesting plant species were
analysed by correspondence analysis (CA) (Lepš, Šmilauer,
2016). To evaluate the experimental data, statistical software
Statistica 13 was used, low-occurring species (less than 10)
being excluded from the dataset (Meloun, Militký, 2011).
Visualisation of the data through correspondence analysis
(Figure 11) indicates the proximity of the Vrbjanska Čuka
assemblage to those of the Greek regions, as well as Cyprus.
The outputs from the statistical analysis are, at this stage of
Table 3.
List of grinding stones from feld season 2016 sampled for starch
analysis.
Grindstone IDQuadrantUnit
70313 west
71313
71313
7231
south
7331
75313
1002324
1012324
1022324
112
2323
1132324
1342323
151143 III
15327
1
15427
1
1853036
242
22
23
2482323
2622329
Figure 9.
Starch grains from grinding
stones: a, b –
Poaceae
; c –
Quercus
; d,
e –
Fabaceae
. Photos: J. Kovárník.
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An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
137
Table 4.
Micro-mollusca fnds from sampled quadrants in 2016 season.
speciesQuadrant 22Quadrant 23Qadrant 26Quadrant 31
Unit 51Unit 26Unit 58Unit 29Unit 29
Unit
SE11
Unit 18
9/19/29/39/49/59/69/79/89/93/13/23/33/43/53/77/17/27/37/47/57/67/77/81/11/21/31/41/51/61/71/85/15/25/35/45/55/65/72/12/22/32/42/52/62/78/18/28/38/48/58/61/22/24/14/24/34/44/54/64/7
Monacha cartusiana
9
2
3
2111 1 1 1 11 1
3
11 1 11112 11 1 1 1
3
2 1
Oxychilus depressus
13
11
8677873568457556
2
3635444
1
510757499
1
7
12
45643
2
454139463
2
8668757
Vitrea contracta
1 1
cf.
Helicopsis
sp. 1 1
Pupilla muscorum
1 2
Truncatellina
cylindrica
2
43
11 211
83
2 1221
3
1 2 1 111 11 1 2 1
Vallonia pulchella
1 11
3
22 1 11 1122 22 2 1
Vallonia costata
1
5765
11
9
2 1
Vertigo pygmaea
1 1 1 1
Galba truncatula
11
Gyraulus laevis
12 1
Planornis planorbis
22 1 1 1 21 12 11 11111
3
1 1
1
Number of speciemns
2619148
1111
109317141820201755
11
35878877681410710616
12
3
12
15661044368414
11
767610778758
Number of species
44334533
1
635533
11
4
2
33433344443343533533
2
3
122
33
122
4
1
33
2221112
Table 5.
Micro-mollusca fnds from section W1.
HabitatSpecies123.13.24567
shurb/parkland
Monacha
cf
. cartusiana
74
1
Oxychilus hydatinus
11
3
1
57
12
open country
Truncatellina cylindrica
1
10
1
Vallonia costata
1
stagnant water
Planorbis planorbis
1 1
image/svg+xml
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An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
138
Figure 10.
Freshwater snails: a –
Gyraulus laevis
; b –
Planorbis planorbis
; c –
Galba truncatula
juv.; land snails: d – cf
. Helicopsis striata
;
e –
Monacha
cartusiana
; f –
Oxychilus depressus
;
h –
Vallonia costata
;
i –
Vallonia pulchella
; j –
Vitrea contracta
juv.; k –
Truncatellina cylindrica
; l –
Vertigo pygmaea
;
m –
Pupilla muscorum
juv. Photos: L. Juřičková.
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An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
139
research, informative and only indicate the trends (not being
statistically signifcant) of the statistical and geographical
similarity of these localities.
Comparison with other European regions is not possible
at this stage of our research because data from Coward
et al.
, 2008 are not yet available; however, we count on
this comparison in the next stages of our research on the
Vrbjanska Čuka site. Figure 4 shows, for the area of southern
Balkans, the regional details of the “archaeobotanical
regions” in the Near East, Anatolia and Europe (black lines,
large black numbers), which were postulated by Coward
et al
. (2008) and used by Shennan (2017) as an example of
evolutionary phylogenic construction. The question as to
whether the assemblage from Vrbjanska Čuka in its structure
of represented charred macroremains is more or less similar
with other “archaeobotanical regions” of southeast Europe
looks to be resolvable. We hope to investigate this further in
the next step of our archaeobotanical research.
Thanks to the frst sampling season, some typical plants
species of the “Neolithic package”
i.e.
einkorn, emmer,
barley, lentil and pea, were confrmed at the site. The presence
of hulled wheats (
i.e.
einkorn, emmer, barley) and legumes
as lentil and pea have been identifed as the basic Neolithic
crops in the southern Balkan region in many studies (
e.g.
Marinova, Valamoti, 2014; Colledge
et al
., 2004; Zohary
et al
., 2012).
Some fnds of
Panicum miliaceum
were recorded at
Neolithic sites of the southern Balkans; however, evidence
for them being of the Neolithic period is not clear and in
general, the presence of this crop has had a more dominant
role since the Bronze Age (Motuzaite
et al
., 2013; Marinova,
Valamoti, 2014). The grain fndings of millet in several
contexts can belong to the younger settlement horizons of
the Vrbjanska Čuka site. The fnds of free-threshing wheat
Triticum aestivum/compactum/durum
are not an exception
for the Neolithic period in the area of the Balkan Peninsula
(Popova, 2009; Zohary
et al
., 2012; Marinova, Valamoti,
2014), however, in the case of the Vrbjanska Čuka site, the
presence of free-threshing wheat in some sampled contexts
could be another case of contamination from younger
horizons. In any case, without direct radiocarbon dating of
particular fnds it is not possible to make conclusions. Finds
of the cultural crops
Secale cereale
and
Triticum spelta
are
also more common in later periods of Balkan prehistory (
e.g.
Kroll, 1991; Popova, 2009).
Charred plant remains at archaeological sites are the result
of human activity and post-depositional processes. Due to the
depositional and post-depositional process, we can observe
here two cases of contamination: by plant macroremains
penetrating from stratigraphically-younger sediments into
archaeologically-older contexts; or the contexts could have
been disturbed by recent activity (Schifer, 1987; Mikuláš,
2000; Baines
et al
., 2015), both of which is the case for
the Vrbjanska Čuka site. The preservation of uncharred
plant macroremains (in very good states of preservation)
was observed in all analysed samples. This recent plant
contamination could have been caused by bioturbations
in the soil with interactions with weather conditions (
e.g.
Cappers, Neef, 2012, p. 182). The problem of contamination
in prehistoric settlements is a general one. The only
possible solution is to choose to sample only those layers
that had already been covered in the Neolithic period and
thus protected against bioturbation. Such a case can be, for
example, compact wall destruction, which is fortunately the
case for several contexts at the Vrbjanska Čuka site, which
were already sampled in season 2017–2018.
The fndings of parts of the spikelet forks of glume wheat
species provide us with information about the phases of
Figure 11.
Correspondence analysis
showing diferences/similarities (this trend
is only informative, not statically signifcant)
among archaeobotanical assemblages from
the Eastern Mediterranean (Colledge
et al
.,
2004) and Vrbjanska Čuka. Analysis and
data visualisation: J. Kovárník.
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An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
140
crop processing that follow on after harvesting, either at the
settlement itself or in its immediate vicinity (Hillman, 1981).
The presence of arable weeds within the crop assemblage
can be used as potential indicator of the height of the harvest,
as well as helping to interpret the sowing time (
e.g.
Kreuz,
Schäfer, 2011; Cappers, Neef, 2012, pp. 113–116). In the
pilot samples from the 2016 season a very small number
of arable feld taxa (as well as cereal grains) were present.
However, as they are often not identifable to species level,
it is not appropriate at this time to attempt to interpret
more closely a farming system such as the crop-growing
conditions, inferring seasonality, or other activities, related
to the use of plants by the inhabitants of Vrbjanska Čuka.
The few seeds of charred plant macroremains have provided
some initial evidence of wild and edible species growing
in a forest-edge environment, whereas some other charred
plants have pointed to a rather drier environment (Blamey,
Grey-Wilson, 2004).
A better understanding of the environment of the site might
be gained by using the analyses of daub fragments from the
walls of the houses/buildings. From personal observation,
the daub mainly consists of imprints of chopped straw/stems
and the chaf parts of probably wild weeds, which were used
for tempering.
Due to the massive contamination of samples recovered
during the analysis of macroremains, the possible level of
contamination of the Neolithic layers in the section W1 by
phytoliths from upper horizons needs to be discussed. First,
the area of W1 sampling is approximately 3 metres distant
from those samples which demonstrated an admixture of
probably Medieval or Classical material (
e.g. Panicum
miliaceum
) and the results of the macroremains analysis
show no such contamination in the W1 samples. On the other
hand, all of them contain some uncharred seeds, which points
to bioturbation by plant roots or animals living in the soil;
such a kind of contamination is common at archaeological
sites and is not expected to be signifcant after the fnal
quantifcation. However, special attention should be paid
to those levels where the Neolithic and Classical horizons
meet with no virgin soil in between, and the distinguishing
of the early agricultural materials and technologies from
those belonging to later periods is indeed another important
challenge of the analysis.
Phytoliths recovered from the Vrbjanska Čuka section W1
samples attest to the great quality of the material for phytolith
analysis. Multiple phytolith skeletons recovered from the
Neolithic layers can be connected with anthropogenic
activities. Phytolith skeletons with cut marks or breakages
are often referred to as cereal-processing residues (Portillo,
Albert, 2014; Dal Corso
et al
., 2017; Anderson
et al
., 2006).
Many other skeletons were found with no specifc breakage,
but ftting the characteristics of what is called simply a “dung
phytolith” in the literature (Delhon
et al
., 2008), including
skeletons with non-sharp rounded edges which also suggests
digestion by ruminants (Madella, 2007).
At the time of the Neolithic, crop-processing residues
and animal dung were important commodities used at
settlements for multiple purposes; residues alone could
have been used as fodder for livestock (Valamoti, 2005) or
as temper for pottery making (Szakmány, Starnini, 2007),
or mixed with dung they could have been used as a fuel,
but animal dung itself is also very suitable for fre-making
purposes (Lancelotti, Madella, 2012). Both cereal residues
and dung could have also been used for building purposes
as an admixture in the architectural composition (Willcox,
Tengberg, 1995; Shahack-Gross, 2011).
At the current state of the research on Vrbjanska Čuka,
while only phytoliths from the profle W1 (and nearby U11)
sampled in 2016 were analysed for these initial results, with
the main aim to determine their presence and quality, it is
hard to say which particular way the residues and animal
dung were used; the fact that most of the phytolith material at
Neolithic levels 5, 6, 7 and U11 is burned strongly suggests
it’s use at least as a fuel. However, this conclusion cannot be
stated for certain when building constructions are expected
to have been burnt in the same area.
Starch microremains are a suitable source of information
about plant usage that can be detected directly from artefacts.
This method can help refne the results from other kinds of
analysis such as pollen, macroremains and phytolith analysis
(Pearsal, 2015; Kovárník, Beneš, 2018). The observed
data can supplement the information from some other area
of knowledge. In the following research various ways are
shown of how starch grains were examined from material
which came from several other sites in the southern part
of the Balkans, as, for example, Kapitan Dimitrievo in
Bulgaria (Valamoti
et al
., 2008). Starch identifcation from
the Neolithic site Stavroupoli, Thessaloniki, Greece, shows
records from cooking vessels where charred food crusts
had adhered to the inner walls of middle and early Late
Neolithic vessels (ca. 5600–5000 BC cal). Starch grains
were particularly present in samples ST129 and ST192
with high concentrations of small Panicoideae and Triticeae
grains (García-Granero
et al
., 2018).
Vlasac and Lepenski Vir are other sites from the Balkans
relevant for this study. On these sites a method was used for
the examination of starch granules from dental calculus (the
thin layer which forms on teeth). This layer contains organic
and chemical residues and it is a good source for analysis.
Two sets of samples were investigated: frst nine samples
of dental calculus coming from Vlasac and three samples
from Lepenski Vir (Cristiani
et al
., 2016). The research has
provided direct evidence that already by 6600 cal. BC, if not
earlier, the Late Mesolithic foragers here consumed domestic
cereals, such as
Triticum monococcum
,
Triticum dicoccum
,
and
Hordeum distichon
.
The use of starch analysis is still rather exceptional in
European Neolithic sites. In Tiszasziget-Agyagbánya, in
southeastern Hungary, a site belonging to the Late Neolithic
Tisza culture (ca. 5000–4500 BC cal.), the results from
research are comparable with our outcomes from Vrbjanska
Čuka stone artefacts (Pető
et al
., 2013). Another examined
site is Hrdlovka in the Czech Republic (Beneš
et al
., 2015),
where samples for starch analysis were taken from a set of
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An Archaeobotanical Onsite Approach to the Neolithic Settlements in Southern Regions of the Balkans: The Case of Vrbjanska Čuka, a Tell Site in Pelagonia, Republic of Macedonia
141
grinding stones, and starch grains from the
Poaceae
and
Fabaceae
families were found.
The analyses of plant macroremains, phytoliths and
starch particularly refect
onsite
bioarchaeological activity;
however, some data also indicate the environmental
characteristics outside of the Neolithic tell (and in younger
occupational periods). This is the case for the malacological
record, which well describes the near surroundings of the
site. The detected species bear witness to surrounding shrub/
open woodland and open country grassland. Witness to
the presence of stagnant water is interesting, as there are
indications for such water patches in the vicinity of the
Neolithic tell (Naumov
et al
., 2018a). However, the mollusc
species indicate variable mosaics of micro-environments
with mainly dryland prevailing. Either way, the malacological
analysis seems to be a good tool for describing the area near
to a site, but must be supported by other proxies.
5. Conclusions
The position of the Vrbjanska Čuka site, in the context of
this part of the southern Balkans Neolithic from the point
of view of the bioarchaeological knowledge, seems to bear
prospects for further research in several ways. First of all, it
is necessary to mention the quality of the bioarchaeological
material itself. The botanical and zoological macroremains
refect a typical composition of Early Neolithic plant and
animal husbandry with no surprises. The well-preserved
phytoliths and starch grains ofer some deeper insight into
the spatial distribution of the onsite human activity as, for
example, those activities connected with specifc buildings
and the spaces between them.
The correspondence analysis of species structure from the
botanical macroremains indicates the potential position of
Vrbjanska Čuka in terms of our knowledge of similarities/
diferences in relation to the Eastern Mediterranean. The
afnity of the assemblage to the structures of Greek and
Cypriot origin is obvious; however, the comparison is a
provisional one only, based on the frst analytical season
2016. The outputs from the statistical analysis show only
informative trends which are not statistically signifcant.
New fnds in species structure made in the 2017–2018
feld season could change the general position of the site;
notwithstanding, the afnity to those of Greek regions is not
surprising.
A major problem of the site is the systemic, natural
and recent contamination of the Neolithic layers by
younger periods present on the site. Vrbjanska Čuka is a
multistratigraphic site with Classical and Medieval layers,
and thus the systemic contamination that exists here is
extensive. The Vrbjanska Čuka tell is not quite an optimal
site for bioarchaeological analyses of the Neolithic for this
reason. On the other hand, some archaeological contexts that
were covered by architectural remains from the Neolithic
period (discovered in feld seasons 2017–2018) promise an
entirely uncontaminated Neolithic situation.
Acknowledgements
Research was supported by the Ministry of Culture of the
Republic of Macedonia, Municipality of Krivogaštani
and Swiss National Science Foundation. The Institutional
Project Scheme of the University of South Bohemia in
České Budějovice (grant IP 16-18 07), Czech Republic,
supported scientifc analyses and educational activities for
the years 2016–2018. It enabled the organisation of the
Archaeobotanical Summer Schools in Prilep. Our research
team would like to express many thanks to the Institute of
Old Slavic Culture in Prilep and the Institute and Museum
Prilep. The authors would like to thank the many individuals
that helped in various stages of the research or contributed
with their knowledge and work: Aleksandar Mitkoski,
Viktorija Andreeska, Nevenka Atanasoska, Eli Miloševska,
Hristijan Talevski, Gjore Milevski, Saško Vasilevski,
Aleksandar Murgoski, Toni Zatkoski, Ivana Živaljević and
Ordanče Petrov and students from the University of South
Bohemia and Goce Delčev University.
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