image/svg+xml
169
IX/2/2018
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy): Forest Exploitation
by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
Alessandra Benatti
a,b*
, Marie Bal
a
, Philippe Allée
a
,
Giovanna Bosi
b
, Daniele Dallai
c
, Anna Maria Mercuri
b
a
Geolab UMR 6042 CNRS, Department of Geography, University of Limoges, 39E rue Camille Guérin, 87036, Limoges, France
b
Laboratory of Palynology and Palaeobotany, Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Viale Caduti in Guerra 127,
41121 Modena, Italy
c
Botanical Garden, Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Viale Caduti in Guerra 127, 41121 Modena, Italy
1. Introduction
The current structure and characteristics of mountain beech
forests in Italy are the results of long-term human-forest
relationships that developed over centuries (Savoia, 1984;
Nocentini, 2009). While in Italy today coppice and high
forest management are found almost equally, in the Emilia-
Romagna region, North Italy, it is coppice that prevails (about
80%), located mainly in its mountain areas (Regione Emilia-
Romagna, 1983). The main reason for this situation has been
the past charcoal production, recognizable by the bushy
form of the trees due to their suckers and by the presence
of abandoned man-made platforms within the undergrowth,
places where ancient human societies had transformed the
wood into charcoal.
Charcoal platforms are considered real archaeological
sites and the anthracological study of the charcoal fragments
contained in their substrate is able to provide information on
the previous forest composition and on the history of forest
exploitation and management practice.
Early studies about charcoal platforms were conducted in
the Pyrenees (Davasse, 1992; 2000; Bonhôte
et al
., 2002).
More recently, charcoal kiln studies have spread throughout
Europe, particularly in Germany (
e.g.
Nelle, 2003; Pèlachs
et al.
, 2009; Ludemann, 2010; Paradis-Grenouillet, 2012;
Deforce
et al.
, 2013; Knapp
et al.
, 2013; Rouaud, 2013;
Tolksdorf
et al.
, 2015).
In Italy, charcoal kiln studies have been few, anthracological
analysis on charcoal platforms having been carried out in the
Ligurian Apennines (Montanari
et al
., 2000; Cevasco and
Parola, 2013; Pescini
et al
., 2017). Other researches have
focused on the census of charcoal platforms in Tuscany,
Central Italy (Carrari
et al
., 2017).
This article presents the frst anthracological analysis
applied to charcoal platforms found in the Tuscan-Emilian
Apennines at high altitude, specifcally in the abandoned
Volume IX ● Issue 2/2018 ● Pages 169
–178
*Corresponding author. E-mail: aleben87@yahoo.it
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 2
nd
July 2018
Accepted: 30
th
December 2018
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.24916/iansa.2018.2.4
Key words:
anthracology
Tuscan-Emilian Apennines
high elevation
ethnographic research
historical-social elements
ABSTRACT
Anthracological analyses were carried out on charcoal platforms located in the Monte Cimone
and Corno alle Scale mountain areas in the Tuscan-Emilian Apennines (Northern Italy), at high
altitude. Analyses of charcoal fragments contained in these man-made structures have allowed the
reconstruction of human-forest relationships over the last centuries, in particular the exploitation of
forests for charcoal production. Comparison of our anthracological results with ethnobotanical and
historical-social information has made possible an improvement in our knowledge of this activity that
was fundamental for the past mountain economy.
image/svg+xml
IANSA 2018 ● IX/2 ● 169–178
Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
170
coppice beech forests of Monte Cimone and Corno alle
Scale mountain areas, close to the timberline (Figure 1). The
objective of the research is to obtain information about the
exploitation of forest resources and on the organization of the
territory by past societies, as well as the possible role of the
charcoal production activity on the position of the timberline.
2. Study area
The studied charcoal platforms are located close to the
timberline (between 1500 and 1700 m asl) in abandoned
coppice beech forest, in the mountain belt. In particular, they
are located on the northwest slope of Monte Cimone, on the
west slope of Monte Corno alle Scale and on its southern
side (the southwest slope of Monte Cornaccio) (Figure 2).
The study area borders two climatic regions: Continental
Europe to the north and Mediterranean region to the south
(Colombo
et al
., 2000). Mean annual temperature is about
2°C and mean annual precipitation ranges from 693.3 mm
(registered at the Monte Cimone meteorological station)
to 2500 mm (registered in the other mountain stations at
lower elevations) (Şerban
et al
., 2007; Alessandrini
et al
.,
2010). The fresh and humid climatic conditions with the
Figure 1.
a) Location of Monte Cimone
and Corno alle Scale study areas. b) Some
abandoned charcoal platforms from the
study areas.
Figure 2.
Location of charcoal platforms.
image/svg+xml
IANSA 2018 ● IX/2 ● 169–178
Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
171
relatively abundant rainfall of this mountain belt favours
the maximum spread of beech (
Fagus sylvatica
L.), which
forms very extensive woods, where it is predominant and
accompanied by the presence of other species such as
Acer
pseudoplatanus
L.,
Sorbus aucuparia
L.,
Laburnum alpinum
(Mill.) Bercht. & J. Presl and
Abies alba
Mill. (Ferrari,
1989; Tomaselli
et al
., 1996; Alessandrini
et al
., 2010). The
timberline reaches 1700 m asl at Monte Cimone and 1600 m
asl at Corno alle Scale, both on the north and south slope.
Inside the forests there may also be meadows and pastures
dominated by
Nardus stricta
L. and shrub communities
dominated by Ericaceae and Fabaceae, which are shrub plant
associations involved with forest reconstruction processes in
areas previously deforested and used as pasture (Alessandrini
et al
., 2010). From the mid-19
th
century until the post-World
War II era, the climatic zone of the beech had been involved
in conifer reforestation, performed with local species such
as
Picea abies
(L.) H. Karst. and
Abies alba
, but also with
non-native species, such as
Pinus nigra
J.F. Arnold,
Pinus
mugo
Turra,
Larix decidua
Mill. and
Pseudotsuga menziesii
(Mirb.) Franco (Bagnaresi, 1983; Geri, 1992; Tomaselli
et al
., 1996). Above the timberline there are pasturelands
dominated by
Vaccinium
heathland and
Nardus stricta
meadows (Geri and D’Addario, 1997; Geri, 1992, Ferrari
et al
., 1992; Alessandrini
et al
., 2003; 2010) still used
today although much less than in the past (Albani, 1964).
Below the beech belt there is a hilly belt dominated by oak
forest, woods with prevalent
Ostrya carpinifolia
Scop. and
Castanea sativa
Mill. (Geri, 1992; Tomaselli
et al
., 1996).
The study areas are located in two regional Parks: Parco del
Frignano and Parco del Corno alle Scale.
2.1 Economic history of charcoal production in the
Monte Cimone and Corno alle Scale mountain areas
Among the multiple uses of these forests for human needs
during the last centuries, such as supply of frewood,
supply of timber for construction and trade, and creation of
pastures with deforestation, charcoal production has been
the anthropic activity that has most infuenced the current
state of these forests (Bagnaresi, 1989; Minghelli, 1989;
Giacobazzi, 2013; Rosa, 1978; Rombaldi and Cenci, 2013).
In the study area, most of the woods (80%) are strongly
marked and shaped by their past as source for charcoal
production (Savoia, 1984), that is, the woods consist
of coppice, many of them abandoned and destined to a
reconversion to high forest (Bagnaresi, 1983). Abandoned
charcoal platforms are easily visible among the undergrowth
(Figure 1b).
The reasons for transforming wood into charcoal were
practical ones: charcoal is much lighter than wood (Roversi,
1972; Rosa, 1981; Rosa, 1982; Mordini and Mordini, 1994;
Rombaldi and Cenci, 2013) and during carbonization the
loss of the volume can exceed 70% of the starting wood mass
(Schenkel
et al
., 1997). Moreover, charcoal has a calorifc
value which can reach 7300 kilocalories, much higher than
wood (Baroni and Telleri, 1987).
Charcoal was traded and used as fuel, both for domestic
needs (heating and cooking) and industry (Mucci, 2004;
Rombaldi and Cenci, 2013; Mordini and Mordini, 1994;
Tonelli, 1895; Savoia, 1984). Often charcoal production
was the main source of proft for the mountain inhabitants
(Rombaldi and Cenci, 2013).
From the 1950s the production of charcoal decreased and
eventually disappeared from these mountains (Albani, 1964;
Bernardi, 1978; Savoia, 1984).
2.2 Charcoal production in the mountains
In order to interpret the results from an anthracological study
of the charcoal platforms, it is necessary to know all phases of
charcoal kiln construction and operation. Through historical
sources and oral testimony from the last charcoal burners
it is possible to learn all the stages of charcoal production
and the charcoal burner’s lifestyle. In 2010, the CAI (Italian
Alpine Club) in collaboration with the association
Appennino
Figure 3.
Typical hut of charcoal burners (Il Massaro, 1969; Govi, 1936).
image/svg+xml
IANSA 2018 ● IX/2 ● 169–178
Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
172
Cinemafestival
made an historical reconstruction of charcoal
kilns as well as a video concerning an interview with the
last charcoal burner of the Modena mountains, Mr Orlando
Bettini (Fregni and Maccaferri, 2010). If not otherwise
indicated, the reported information about this activity
pertains to this video.
Charcoal production on a single platform lasted several
days, and thus the charcoal burners would build a hut within
the forest (Figure 3) made of wood, stones, and earth, and
covered with moss, branches and clods of earth (Poli Bini,
1982), typically called “plicci” in the Bologna Apennines
(pers. comm., Ettore Scagliarini, 2017). Within the hut a bed
Figure 4.
Construction phases of a charcoal
kiln.
image/svg+xml
IANSA 2018 ● IX/2 ● 169–178
Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
173
made of brushwood and leaves, called “rapazzola”, would be
made (Poli Bini, 1982).
Charcoal production started with the creation or the
rearrangement of an ancient platform: a portion of land
from the upper slope was removed and placed below on
the downhill slope; if the slope was very steep, a dry stone
wall was built downhill. The construction of a charcoal
kiln would start with the planting of a wooden pole, called
“cavicchio”, in the middle of the platform. Around the pole
was interwoven the so-called “castellina” made of wooden
rods (Figure 4a). Seasoned wood was arranged around the
“castellina” (Figure 4b) to build a dome-shaped woodpile
(Figure 4c) that could have a diameter of 3–4 m or even
more and a height that could exceed 3 m. Carbonization is
an incomplete combustion process that occurs when there
is very little oxygen. For this reason, the kiln covering
would be made waterproof. The woodpile was wrapped
by a “camicia” formed of fne wood, which was covered
with stony and grassy clods for the frst 50 cm from the
ground; the remaining surface was covered frst with wet
leaves collected in the undergrowth (called “patricia”) and
then with earth (Figure 4d). The waterproof layer would be
5–10 cm thick.
The ignition of the charcoal kiln occurred by dropping
embers (small pieces of wood called “mozzi”) into the
chimney formed by the removal of the central pole
(Figure 4e). This operation was made by the “meo”, a name
attributed to the youngest charcoal burner who would have
been the one responsible for preparing meals. To control the
carbonization process, the quantity of oxygen entering the
woodpile was regulated by the opening and closing of holes,
called “cagnoli” in Modena and “arfummi” in Bologna
(Il Massaro, 1969), that were arranged in rows, one at ground
level and another at a height of 50 cm. The timing of charcoal
production ranged from 3–4 days (for the smallest charcoal
kilns) to 10–12 days (for the largest ones). The wood charcoal
would be ready when the smoke coming out from the holes
was sky blue. The charcoal was then collected and packed
for transport. To evaluate the charcoal quality, the charcoal
burners and the merchants used to wet a charcoal fragment
with saliva; if it became white as milk it was of high quality
(Fregni and Maccaferri, 2010).
3. Material and methods
The anthracological
study included a survey of charcoal
platforms in the study areas, a sampling from eight platforms,
and the isolation of charcoal for anthracological analysis and
radiocarbon dating.
3.1 Charcoal platforms survey
Charcoal platforms were surveyed during periods of
prospection near the timberline, both in the wooded and
open areas, as well as at lower elevations (1500 m asl). The
surveys were performed within 0.21 km
2
on the northwest
slope of Monte Cimone, within 0.18 km
2
on the west slope
of Monte Corno alle Scale, and within 0.21 km
2
on the
southwest slope of Monte Cornaccio (Figure 2). For each
platform, geographical coordinates were noted, as well as
the larger and smaller diameter, and state of conservation.
After the surveys, 4 platforms located at Monte Cimone
(Carbo MC-1, MC-2, MC-3 and MC-4; no, 1, 2, 3 and 4 in
Figure 2a) and 4 others from Corno alle Scale (Carbo CS-1,
CS-2, CS-3 and CS-4; no, 1, 2, 3 and 4 in Figure 2b) were
chosen near the timberline to be sampled: they are quite
distant from each other inside the prospection area in order
to obtain more complete information from a spatial point of
view. They range from 50 to 70 m between each other at
Monte Cimone, and from 400 to 700 m at Corno alle Scale.
3.2 Charcoal platforms sampling
The sampling point of each platform (a cuadrat of 50 cm side)
was located between the centre and the periphery to avoid
the collection of charcoal fragments from the embers used to
light the woodpile and charcoal pieces too fragmented by the
charcoal burners’ activity around the charcoal kiln (Rouaud,
2013). After the removal of the leaf layer of undergrowth
(1–2 cm), samples were taken approximately every 5 cm,
from the surface to the end of the black carbonized layer
(Davasse, 2000; Paradis-Grenouillet, 2012; Rouaud, 2013).
For each layer, from 1 to 3 kg of sediment were collected.
3.3 Anthracological analysis and radiocarbon dating
Sediment samples were sieved under a running water jet with
sieves of mesh size 5 and 2 mm. Taxonomic identifcation,
made for all the sampled layers, was performed under an
incident light microscope (100X, 200X, 500X) by observing
the transversal, tangential and radial sections of charcoal
pieces. The identifcation was supported by the use of wood
anatomy atlases (Jacquiot
et al.
, 1973; Schweingruber, 1990;
Vernet
et al
., 2001).
Estimation of the diameter of starting trunks or branches
was made by observing the curvature of the growth rings
visible on the charcoal fragments. According to Marguerie
and Hunot, (2007) and Cabanis and Marguerie (2013), the
curvatures were classifed into three categories: weakly,
moderately and strongly curved.
Characteristics of charcoals that could give information
about the state of the wood before carbonization were noted:
radial cracks, vitrifcation, fungal hyphae and insect galleries
(Marguerie and Hunot, 2007).
Because of the great homogeneity in the taxonomic
identifcation, we considered that the analysis of 50 charcoals
(randomly selected), from each sampled level were sufcient
to represent a whole sample.
To detect the former period of activity of a platform, we
selected a charcoal from the bottom layer (Nelle, 2003;
Rouaud, 2013) for radiocarbon dating. To make the dating
coincide with the moment when the tree and its branches
were cut, we selected charcoals with bark (Davasse, 2000).
AMS
14
C dating was carried out at the Centre de Datation par
le Radiocarbone (Lyon) for the 4 platforms of Monte Cimone,
and at the Centro di Datazione e Diagnostica (University of
image/svg+xml
IANSA 2018 ● IX/2 ● 169–178
Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
174
Salento) for the 4 platforms of Corno alle Scale. The dates
were calibrated as BP and AD on the base of the data set
Intcal13.14c (Reimer
et al
., 2013).
4. Results
During the survey, 7 charcoal platforms were discovered on
the northwest slope of Monte Cimone, 8 on the west slope of
Monte Corno alle Scale and 6 others on the southwest slope
of Monte Cornaccio. The presence of many platforms was
also observed at lower altitudes, at about 1500 m asl, in the
Monte Cimone area (Figure 2).
The 8 studied charcoal platforms present diferent degrees
of conservation. The 4 platforms of Monte Cimone (Carbo
MC-1, MC-2, MC-3 and MC-4) and two of the west slope
of Monte Corno alle Scale (Carbo CS-1 and CS-2) show an
excellent state of conservation, despite them being located at
Figure 5.
Dentro-anthracological results of charcoal platforms analysis.
image/svg+xml
IANSA 2018 ● IX/2 ● 169–178
Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
175
points of steep slope which could favour erosion. Carbo CS-3
(at a point of more gentle slope) and CS-4 (on a very steep
slope), sampled on the southwest slope of Monte Cornaccio,
present a good and a fair state of preservation, respectively.
The platforms have common features:
•
In their downstream part there are not any supporting
dry walls but only some boulders placed with the same
aim.
•
They have a semi-oval shape: from 4.5 to 6.5 m in
the larger diameter (perpendicular to the upstream-
downstream direction) and from 3.5 to 5 m the
minor diameter (along the upstream-downstream
direction).
•
They are devoid of arboreal vegetation because of the
hostile micro-habitat created by a substrate rich in
charcoal which prevent forest recolonization (Carrari
et al
., 2016); also shrubby and herbaceous vegetation
is absent, except for MC-2, covered by grass and moss,
and for CS-1, covered by blueberry.
•
They present dark charcoal layers from 11 to 16 cm
thick that are not interrupted by light colour layers
without charcoal, as observed in other research studies
(
e.g.
Montanari
et al
., 2000; 2002; Rouaud, 2013).
•
They have dark layers that are very rich in large
charcoal pieces in a good state of conservation.
•
They contain charcoal pieces with few but large radial
cracks.
•
Concerning growth ring curvature, the moderately-
curved category prevails in all the platforms, except
for Carbo CS-3, where the weakly-curved category
prevails. Carbo CS-2 has a high percentage of
fragments with strong growth-ring curvature compared
to all the other platforms (Figure 5).
Taxonomic identifcation shows almost exclusively
Fagus
sylvatica
(Figure 5). Only in Carbo MC-2 was a charcoal of
Acer
sp. identifed.
Radiocarbon dates are rather recent (Table 1). Carbo CS-2
is the oldest, dated 1390–1477 AD,
i.e.
between the end of
the 14
th
and the end of the 15
th
century. All the other charcoal
platforms, overall, cover a period that spans from 1616 to
1948 AD,
i.e.
the beginning of the 17
th
to the mid–20
th
century.
5. Discussion
The study of the charcoal platforms, when compared with the
historical sources and ethnological information, is capable
of providing new knowledge concerning the human-forest
relationship over the last centuries.
5.1 Spatial analysis of the platforms’ distribution:
complementarity between forest exploitation and
pastoral activities
During their time in use, charcoal platforms are always
located inside the forest or near to the timberline (Davasse,
2000). In our study areas, their presence just below the current
timberline suggests that this ecotone did not undergo any
altitudinal regression since the 15
th
up until the 20
th
century.
Many of the charcoal platforms in our study areas were
operating concurrently with important periods of sheep and
goat breeding. Indeed, examining the number of sheep and
goats present in the study area over time (
e.g.
Roversi, 1983;
Gruppo Studi Capotauro, 2012; Rombaldi and Cenci, 2013),
it emerges that there was a high number of sheep and goats
during the 18
th
–20
th
centuries (Benatti, 2018). Nevertheless,
at the time of the pastoral apogee, the forests just below
the pasturelands (1700 m asl at Monte Cimone and 1600
m asl at Corno alle Scale) were not deforested to leave
space for such grazing activity, despite the grazing being
very intense. This suggests a well-managed exploitation
of the two main resources of these mountains: pastures
and woodland. Such complementarity between pastoral
activities and forest exploitation has also been observed in
other European mountain areas (
e.g.
Davasse and Galop,
1990; Davasse, 1992; Paradis-Grenouillet, 2012; Bal
et al
.,
2015). Many of the current European wood-pasture systems
have experienced a period of traditional multifunctional
management; one that has been historically guided by local
needs and has generally involved the grazing of livestock,
but also the use of raw material provided by the forest, such
as products from coppicing (Hartel and Plieninger, 2014).
5.2 Beech exploitation
The almost totality of
Fagus sylvatica
in the taxonomic
identifcation could suggest a preference for this wood species
Table 1.
Radiocarbon dates with probability, altitude and geographic coordinates of charcoal platforms.
Study areaCharcoal
platform name
Age BPAge cal BP
(2 σ)
Age cal AD
(2 σ)
P
(%)
Elevation
( m a.s.l.)
Latitude/Longitude
Monte
Cimone
Carbo MC-1245±30269–320 BP1631–1681 AD54.30%1700
44°12.176′N–10°41.188′E
Carbo MC-2225±35142–219 BP1731–1809 AD42.20%1689
44°12.238′N–10°41.190′E
Carbo MC-3205±30142–218 BP1731–1809 AD50.10%1684
44°12.240′N–10°41.251′E
Carbo MC-4165±30131–230 BP1720–1819 AD49.30%1704
44°12.221′N–10°41.241′E
Corno alle
Scale
Carbo CS-1227±45136–224 BP1726–1814 AD37.00%1598
44°7′27.39″N–10°48′52.27″E
Carbo CS-2490±45474–560 BP1390–1477 AD86.50%1568
44°7′49.47″–N 10°49′1.78″E
Carbo CS-3237±45258–334 BP1616–1692 AD34.10%1507
44°6′27.44″N–10°48′45.84″E
Carbo CS-4134±45169–282 BP1797–1948 AD54.40%1524
44°6′38.11″N–10°48′33.74″E
image/svg+xml
IANSA 2018 ● IX/2 ● 169–178
Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
176
by the charcoal burners, or, at least during the operational
period of the study platforms, that beech was probably the
only dominant tree species in the high mountains of our
study areas. In fact, although some plant species are more
suitable than others for producing charcoal, the charcoal
burners usually used all the woody plants available to them
near their platforms (Montanari
et al
.,
2000; Nelle, 2003).
Abies alba
, whose past presence is attested by palynological
studies for the whole Holocene and by soil charcoal for
the Late Holocene (Watson, 1996; Vescovi
et al
., 2010a;
2010b; Compostella
et al
., 2013), was not found in the
charcoal assemblages of our study platforms. As in many
other Italian mountain areas, the presence of monocultures
of beech woodland could be due to the management practice
of coppicing – repeated over time – that would lead to
the elimination of other tree species (such as
Abies alba
),
transforming the mixed woods into uniform beech woods
(Andreatta, 2008; Nocentini, 2009).
The taxonomic identifcation agrees with what has
been afrmed by the last charcoal burners of the Modena
Mountains (Fregni and Maccaferri, 2010) and with the
historical sources, reporting that, during the modern and
contemporary age, the wood used to produce charcoal was
beech only (Tonelli, 1895; Carpani, 1972; Rombaldi and
Cenci, 2013). The fragment of
Acer
in Carbo MC-2 could
have originated from a maple tree near the platform and
have been used to light the woodpile. An inhabitant of the
Bologna Mountains, a descendant of charcoal burners, was
able to confrm that maple was considered a bad wood to
produce charcoal (pers. comm., Ettore Scagliarini, 2018).
Probably, the beech wood used in the studied charcoal
platforms was previously seasoned: as suggested by the
few but large radial cracks in the charcoal fragments
(Théry-Parisot and Henry, 2012). The last charcoal burner
of Modena Mountains afrms that wood was cut in spring,
seasoned for 4–5 months, and transformed into charcoal in
September (Fregni and Maccaferri, 2010).
5.3 Uses of charcoal
The thin dark charcoal layers could be due to the scarce
and occasional use of these platforms. Close to the villages
there are platforms with very thick dark layers of some tens
of centimetres; furthermore, those platforms at the highest
altitudes were probably utilised by the poorest of mountain
families in order to obtain charcoal for domestic needs,
whereas charcoal production for industry and trade was
located closer to the villages (pers. comm., Ettore Scagliarini,
2018). Wood diameter estimation suggests that the utilised
woods had a medium-large diameter, and thus the exploitation
of these forests was restricted or well managed over time.
Nevertheless, it must not be excluded that the erosion due to
the steep slopes may have reduced the charcoal layers. The
platforms discovered at about 1500 m asl on the northwest
slope of Monte Cimone (Figure 2), in an area of little or very
gentle slope, have dark layers that can reach 20–25 cm thick.
The oldest platform, Carbo CS-2, shows percentages
of fragments of small calibre (diameter) greater than
other platforms. This can suggest a repetitive and intense
charcoal production that could have led over time to
smaller log diameters. The operating period of this platform
(15
th
century) coincides with the iron mining and industry
of the Garfagnana (a part of Tuscany region, bordering with
Modena province). This metallurgical industry led to timber
shortages and the consequent transfer of this activity towards
the Reggio Emilia and Modena Mountains (Lodovisi, 2006).
It can be supposed that the charcoal fuel for the functioning
of the forges also came from distant areas, such as our study
area. Exploitation of the natural resources of the Garfagnana
used many roads and mule tracks that favoured the transport
of goods such as wood charcoal (Lodovisi, 2006; Pelù,
2006).
During the 19
th
century, the studied charcoal platforms may
have supported the exploitation of the iron and copper mines
of the Bologna Mountains and the functioning of the related
ironworks and metal foundries. In addition, the activity of
the metalworkers and the production of lime, gypsum plaster
and glass may have employed charcoal produced in the
platforms analysed in this study (Carpani, 1972; Bignardi,
1980; Gruppo Studi Capotauro, 2012; Rombaldi and Cenci,
2013). Part of this charcoal may have been traded with the
Emilia-Romagna plain and nearby Tuscany (Tonelli, 1895;
Roversi, 1972).
The platform CS-4, which operated up until the mid-
20
th
century, may have provided charcoal for the fuel needs
caused by the two world wars, in particular by the energy
crisis of the Second World War (Moreno and Montanari,
2008). Confrming the importance of charcoal production
during war periods, the last charcoal burners of the Modena
Mountains stated that they were exempted from conscription
(pers. comm., Orlando Bettini, 2017).
6. Conclusions
Spatial analysis of the platforms’ distribution has highlighted
the existence of a spatial organization that includes both the
forest and pasture resources as observed elsewhere (
e.g.
Davasse and Galop, 1990; Davasse, 1992) and a timberline
that appears to be very stable, at least during the last few
centuries. The charcoal was derived exclusively from
seasoned wood obtained from coppice beech forest and it
was used for many domestic and industrial needs.
Archaeobotany being useful in the reconstruction of
cultural landscapes (
e.g.
Mercuri, 2014), this research has
contributed to the study of mountain cultural landscape
evolution as already shown by other studies in mountain
and plain areas (
e.g.
Davasse, 2000; Montanari
et al
.,
2000; Bosi
et al
., 2015). Combined with information from
archaeobotany, the ethnobotanical and historical information
is useful to better interpret the anthracological results and
to improve our knowledge of charcoal production, a key
activity for past societies and an important component of the
historical-cultural heritage of the Apennines. As the charcoal
production has now been completely abandoned, many
image/svg+xml
IANSA 2018 ● IX/2 ● 169–178
Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
177
people have focused their interest on the cultural aspects of
this activity. In the year 2017, a day conference (
Carbonaie
e Carbonai
; speaker A. Benatti) about the charcoal platforms
study, followed by a thematic mountain excursion, was
organised by the Italian Alpine Club (the oldest and largest
association of mountaineers and mountain enthusiasts in
Italy), in particular the section of Sassuolo (province of
Modena). This event was extremely appreciated by all the
participants.
Acknowledgements
This research was developed within the framework of a
PhD thesis between the School “
613 Sciences de la Société,
Territoires, Sciences Économiques et de Gestion
” of the
University of Limoges and the School “M3ES Models and
Methods for Material and Environmental Sciences” of the
University of Modena and Reggio Emilia. Financial support
was supplied by the Project AGRESPE and the Limousin
Region with the PhD scholarship.
We want to thank the regional parks “Parco del Frignano”
and “Parco del Corno alle Scale” and the city of San Marcello
Pistoiese for the authorizations for the surveys and sampling.
We thank the projects “Artemis/CNRS” and “Successo-
Terra” for the radiocarbon dating.
Many thanks to all who have helped in surveys and
sampling,
e.g.
Daniele Bertoni, Paolo Gibertini, Salvia
García Álvarez, Graziella Rassat, Paolo Benatti, Umberto
Vicenzi, Dario Brugioni and Marcello Crotti.
Photos of the charcoal kiln construction were made by
Davide Maccaferri and kindly ofered by Claudio Fregni.
We thank Ettore Scagliarini and Orlando Bettini for oral
information.
References
ALBANI, D., 1964.
Il Frignano
. Bologna: Società Tipografca Mareggiael
Parco delle Dolomiti Bellunesi.
Forest@
, 5, 265–268.
BAGNARESI, U., 1983. I boschi dell’Emilia-Romagna. In: Azienda
Regionale delle Foreste della Regione Emilia-Romagna, ed.
Alberi e
arbusti dell’Emilia-Romagna
. Bologna: Grafche Zanini, pp. 13–25.
BAGNARESI, U., 1989. Rapporti storici ed attuali tra uomo e boschi in
Emilia-Romagna. In: Regione Emilia-Romagna, ed.
I boschi dell’Emilia-
Romagna.
Bologna: Grafche Zanini, pp.17–28.
BAL, M.C., ALLÉE, PH., LIARD, M., 2015. The origins of a Nardus
stricta grassland through soil charcoal analyses: Reconstructing the
history of a mountain cultural landscape (Mont Lozère, France) since the
Neolithic.
Quaternary International
, 366, 3–14.
BARONI, E., and TELLERI W., 1987. Le ultime carbonaie nei boschi
dell’Appennino.
La provincia di Modena
, 22, 26–31.
BENATTI, A., 2018.
Reconstruction du paysage végétal des Apennins du
Nord au Monte Cimone et au Corno alle Scale (Italie) durant l’Holocène
Tardif : approche multiproxy.
Unpublished thesis (PhD), University of
Limoges and University of Modena and Reggio Emilia.
BERNARDI, R., 1978.
Realtà geografca e sviluppo economico del
modenese
. Modena: Banca popolare di Modena.
BIGNARDI, A., 1980. Le ferriere di Lizzano.
La Mùsola
, 27, 22–25.
BONHÔTE, J., DAVASSE, B., DUBOIS, C., ISARD, V., MÉTAILIÉ,
J.P., 2002. Charcoal kilns and environmental history in the eastern
Pyrenees (France). A methodological approach. In: S. Thiébault, ed.
Second international meeting of anthracology, Oct 2000, Paris
. Paris:
Archaeopress, pp. 219–228.
BOSI, G., MERCURI, A.M., BANDINI MAZZANTI, M.,
FLORENZANO, A., MONTECCHI, M.C., TORRI, P., LABATE,
D., RINALDI, R. 2015. The evolution of Roman urban environments
through the archaeobotanical remains in Modena – Northern Italy.
Journal of Archaeological Science
, 53, 19–3.
CABANIS, M., and MARGUERIE, D., 2013. Les ressources en bois
dans le bassin de Clermont-Ferrand du Néolithique à la période romaine
d’après l’analyse dendro-anthracologique.
Quaternaire
, 24(2), 129–139.
CARPANI, G., 1972. L’olio di “Faggiuola” e la società di Belvedere.
La
Mùsola
, 11, 42–43.
CARRARI, E., AMPOORTER, E., VERHEYEN, K., COPPI, A.,
SELVI, F., 2016. Former charcoal platforms in Mediterranean forest
areas: a hostile microhabitat for the recolonization by woody species.
iForest Biogeosciences and Forestry
, 10, 136–144.
CARRARI, E., AMPOORTER, E., BOTTALICO, F., CHIRICI, G.,
COPPI, A., TRAVAGLINI, D., VERHEYEN, K., SELVI, F., 2017. The
old charcoal kiln sites in Central Italian forest landscapes.
Quaternary
International
, 458, 214–223.
CEVASCO, R., and PAROLA, C., 2013. Field evidence of past
management practices in present vegetation: frst notes of historical
ecology and dendroecology on the Costa dei Ghif slopes. In : A.M.,
Stagno, ed.
Montagne incise. Pietre incise Archeologia delle risorse nella
montagna mediterranea, Atti del Convegno (Borzonasca, 20–22 ottobre
2011).
Genova: All’insegna del Gglio, pp. 401–410.
COLOMBO, T., SANTAGUIDA, R., CAPASSO, A., CALZOLARI, F.,
EVANGELISTI, F., BONASONI, P., 2000. Biospheric infuence on
carbon dioxide measurements in Italy.
Atmospheric Environment
, 34,
4963–4969.
COMPOSTELLA, C., TROMBINO, L., CACCIANIGA, M., 2013.
Late Holocene soil evolution and treeline fuctuations in the Northern
Apennines.
Quaternary International
, 289, 46–59.
DAVASSE, B., 1992. Anthracologie et espaces forestiers charbonnés.
Quelques exemples dans la moitié orientale des Pyrénées. In: J.L., Vernet,
ed.
Les charbons de bois, les anciens écosystèmes et le rôle de l’homme
.
Montpellier: Bulletin de la Société Botanique de France, 139, 597–608.
DAVASSE, B., 2000.
Forêts, charbonniers et paysans dans les Pyrénées de
l’est du Moyen Age à nos jours
. Toulouse: Geode.
DAVASSE, B., and GALOP, D., 1990. Le paysage forestier du Haut
Vicdessos (Ariège) : l’évolution d’un milieu anthropisé.
Revue
géographique des Pyrénées et du Sud-Ouest
, 61(1), 433–457.
DEFORCE, K., BOEREN, I., ADRIAENSSENS, S., BASTIAENS, J., DE
KEERSMAEKER, L., HANECA, K., TYS, D., VANDEKERKHOVE,
K., 2013. Selective woodland exploitation for charcoal production. A
detailed analysis of charcoal kiln remains (ca. 1300–1900 AD) from Zoersel
(northern Belgium).
Journal of Archaeological Science
, 40, 681–689.
FERRARI, C., 1989. La vegetazione forestale dell’Emilia-Romgna. In:
Regione Emilia-Romagna, ed.
I boschi dell’Emilia Romagna
. Bologna:
Grafche Zanini, pp. 61–120.
FERRARI, C., GERDOL, R., PICCOLI, F., 1992. La vegetazione.
In: Regione Emila-Romagna, ed.
Oltre il limite degli alberi
. Bologna:
Ofcine Grafche Bolognesi, pp. 191–235.
FREGNI, C., and MACCAFERRI, D., 2010.
Come eravamo,
“I Carbonai”, ricostruzione storica di una carbonaia
[CD-ROM].
Appennino Cinemafestival, CAI Gruppo Regionale Emilia-Romagna.
GERI, A., 1992.
Il Corno alle Scale, il parco e dintorni: accessi, itinerari
ad anelli, trekking
. Casalecchio di Reno: Grafs.
GIACOBAZZI,
D., 2013. La questione dei boschi nell’Ottocento.
La
Mùsola…E Viandare
, 91, 71–80.
GRUPPO STUDI CAPOTAURO, 2012.
Serafno Calindri, Que’ luoghi
delle bolognesi montagne. Il Belvedere nel Dizionario corografco
.
Vidiciatico: Gruppo Studi Capotauro.
HARTEL, T., and PLIENINGER, T., 2014. The social and ecological
dimensions of wood-pastures. In: T. Hartel and T. Plieninger, eds.
European wood-pastures in transition. A social-ecological approach
.
London: Routledge, pp. 3–18.
IL MASSARO, 1969. Maremma.
La Mùsola
, 6, 49–51.
JACQUIOT, C., TRENARD, Y., DIROL, D., 1973.
Atlas d’anatomie des
bois des Angiospermes (essences feuillues)
. Paris : Centre Technique du
Bois.
image/svg+xml
IANSA 2018 ● IX/2 ● 169–178
Alessandra Benatti, Marie Bal, Philippe Allée, Giovanna Bosi, Daniele Dallai, Anna Maria Mercuri: Charcoal Kilns in the Northern Apennines (Italy):
Forest Exploitation by Past Societies in Mountain Areas
178
KNAPP, H., ROBIN, V., KIRLEIS, W., NELLE, O., 2013. Woodland
history in the upper Harz Mountains revealed by kiln site, soil sediment
and peat charcoal analyses.
Quaternary International
, 289, 88–100.
LODOVISI,
A., 2006. Strade incerte: viabilità, cartografa e marginalità
nella Garfagnana in età moderna. In: G. Bertuzzi, ed.
Viabilità, trafci,
commercio, mercati e fere in Garfagnana dall’antichità all’unità d’Italia:
Atti del convegno tenuto a Castelnuovo di Garfagnana, Rocca Ariostesca,
10–11 settembre 2005
. Modena: Tipo-Litografa Dini, pp. 123–130.
LUDEMANN, T., 2010. Past fuel wood exploitation and natural forest
vegetation in the Black Forest, the Vosges and neighbouring regions
in western Central Europe.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology,
Palaeoecology
, 291, 154–165.
MARGUERIE, D., HUNOT, J.Y., 2007. Charcoal analysis and dendrology:
data from archaeological sites in north-western France.
Journal of
Archaeological Science
, 34, 1417–1433.
MERCURI, A.M., 2014.
Genesis and evolution of the cultural landscape
in central Mediterranean: the “where, when and how” through the
palynological approach
.
Landscape Ecology
, 29, 1799–1810.
MINGHELLI, F., 1989. Il bosco nel quadro della situazione economico-
sociale dell’Appennino emiliano-romagnolo alla fne dell’Ottocento.
In: G. Adani, ed.
Il mondo della natura in Emilia Romagna, vol. I., La
Montagna
. Milano: Pizzi/Cinisello Balsamo, pp. 9–16.
MONTANARI, C., PRONO, P., SCIPIONI, S., 2000. The study of
charcoal-burning sites in the Apennine Mountains of Liguria (NW
Italy) as a tool for forest history. In: M. Agnoletti and S. Anderson,
eds.
Methods and Approaches in Forest History
. Wallingford: CABI
Publishing, pp. 79–91.
MONTANARI, C., SCIPIONI, S., CALDERONI, G., LEONARDI,
G., MORENO, D., 2002. Linking anthracology and historical ecology:
suggestions from a post-medieval site in the Ligurian Apennines (north-
west Italy). In: S. Thiébault, ed.
Charcoal Analysis. Methodological
Approaches, Palaeoecological Results and Wood Uses. Proceedings of
the Second International Meeting of Anthracology, Paris, September
2000
. Oxford: Archaeopress, pp. 235–241.
MORDINI, A., and MORDINI, W., 1994.
Lo Scoltenna: strenna di
Pievepelago 1881–1885
. Pievepelago: Lo Scoltenna.
MORENO, D., and MONTANARI, C., 2008. Beyond perception: Towards
a historical ecology of rural landscape in Italy.
Cuadernos Geografcos
– publicación semestral (Monográfco “La Convención Europea del
Paisaje. Desarrollos prácticos”)
, 43(2), 199–225.
MUCCI, P., 2004. Movimenti migratori verso l’Alto Frignano all’inizio
dell’Età Moderna. In: P. Foschi and R. Zagnoni, eds.
Migranti
dell’Appennino: atti delle giornate di studio (Capugnano, 7 settembre
2002)
. Porretta Terme: Gruppo di studi alta Valle del Reno.
NELLE, O., 2003. Woodland history of the last 500 years revealed by
anthracological studies of charcoal kiln sites in the Bavarian Forest,
Germany.
Phytocoenologia
, 33(4), 667–682.
NOCENTINI, S., 2009. Structure and management of beech (Fagus
sylvatica L.) forests in Italy.
iForest – Biogeosciences and Forestry
, 2,
105–113.
PARADIS-GRENOUILLET, S., 2012.
Etudier les “forêts métallurgiques”:
analyses dendroanthracologiques et approches géohistoriques
.
Unpublished thesis (PhD), University of Limoges.
PÈLACHS, A., NADAL, J., SORIANO, J.M., MOLINA, D., CUNILL,
R., 2009. Changes in Pyrenean woodlands as a result of the intensity of
human exploitation: 2,000 years of metallurgy in Vallferrera, northeast
Iberian Peninsula.
Vegetation History and Archaeobotany
, 18, 403–416.
PELÙ, P., 2006. Rapporti tra la costa tirrenica e la bassa padana attraverso
l’Appennino tosco-emiliano nel tardo Medioevo. In: G. Bertuzzi, ed.
Viabilità, trafci, commercio, mercati e fere in Garfagnana dall’antichità
all’unità d’Italia: Atti del convegno tenuto a Castelnuovo di Garfagnana,
Rocca Ariostesca, 10–11 settembre 2005
. Modena: Tipo-Litografa Dini,
pp. 105–121.
PESCINI, V., MONTANARI, C.A., MORENO, D.T., 2017. Multi-
proxy record of environmental changes and past land use practices in
a Mediterranean landscape: The Punta Mesco cape (Liguria – Italy)
between the 15
th
and 20
th
century.
Quaternary International
, 463(B),
376–390.
POLI BINI, E., 1982. Monte Acuto non morirà.
La Mùsola
, 32, 101–108.
REGIONE EMILIA-ROMAGNA, 1983.
Alberi e arbusti dell’Emilia-
Romagna
. Bologna: Grafche Zanini.
REIMER, P.J., BARD, E., BAYLISS, A., BECK, J.W., BLACKWELL,
P.G., BRONK RAMSEY, C., BUCK, C.E., CHENG, H., EDWARDS,
R.L., FRIEDRICH, M., GROOTES, P.M., GUILDERSON, T.P.,
HAFLIDASON, H., HAJDAS, I., HATTÉ, C., HEATON, T.J., HOGG,
A.G., HUGHEN, K.A., KAISER, K.F., KROMER, B., MANNING,
S.W., NIU, M., REIMER, R.W., RICHARDS, D.A., SCOTT, E.M.,
SOUTHON, J.R., TURNEY, C.S.M., VAN DER PLICHT, J., 2013.
IntCal13 and MARINE13 radiocarbon age calibration curves 0–50000
years calBP.
Radiocarbon
55(4) 1869–1887.
ROMBALDI, O., and CENCI, A., 2013.
Le Montagne del Duca.
L’Appenninio Estense delle antiche province di Modena, Reggio,
Frignano, Garfagnana e Massa Carrara dall’ancién regime all’Unità
d’Italia
. Reggio Emilia: Antiche Porte.
ROSA, E., 1978. Preoccupazione del senato bolognese per la bellissima
selva di Belvedere.
La Mùsola
, 23, 16–18.
ROSA, E., 1981. Monti e boschi del Belvedere in età napoleonica. 1 –
Leggi nuove e consuetudini antiche a confronto.
La Mùsola
, 30, 139–145.
ROSA, E., 1982. Monti e boschi del Belvedere in età napoleonica. 2 –
Legna, carbone e pascoli: un censimento delle risorse.
La Mùsola
, 31,
61–66.
ROUAUD, R., 2013.
Les forêts de pente de la haute vallée de la Dordogne :
enjeux écologiques et énergétiques d’une ancienne forêt charbonnée
.
Unpublished thesis (PhD), University of Limoges.
ROVERSI, G., 1972. Le nostre faggete.
La Mùsola
, 11, 28–31.
ROVERSI, G., 1983. L’ovinicoltura nel bolognese cento anni fa. In:
7a
mostra regionale degli ovini e dei caprini.
Bologna: Tipo-litografa
CASMA, pp. 4–6.
SAVOIA, G., 1984.
L’Utilizzo delle risorse forestali in Emilia-Romagna
.
Bologna: Azienda Regionale delle Foreste dell’Emilia-Romagna.
SCHENKEL, Y., BERTAUX, P., VANWIJNSBERGHE, S., CARRÉ,
J., 1997. Une évaluation de la technique de la carbonisation en meule.
Biotechnolology Agronomy Society and Environnement
, 1(2), 113–124.
SCHWEINGRUBER, F.H., 1990.
Anatomieeuropaïscher Hölzer-
Anatomy of European Woods
. Bernund Stuttgart, Haupt: Eidgenössische
Forschungsanstalt für Wald, Schnee und Landschaft, Birmensdorf.
ŞERBAN, E., SANTAGUIDA, R., LAURIA,
L., 2007. The pluviometric
surplus and defcit, as climatic risk phenomena at Monte Cimone weather
station, Italy.
Seminarul Geografc “D. Cantemir”
, 28, 33–42.
THÉRY-PARISOT, I., HENRY, A., 2012. Seasoned or green? Radial
cracks analysis as a method for identifying the use of green wood as
fuel in archaeological charcoal.
Journal of Archaeological Science
, 39,
381–388.
TOLKSDORF, J.F., ELBURG, R., SCHRÖDER, F., KNAPP, H.,
HERBIG, C., WESTPHAL, T., SCHNEIDER, B., FÜLLING,
A., HEMKER, C. 2015. Forest exploitation for charcoal production
and timber since the 12
th
century in an intact medieval mining site in
the Niederpöbel Valley (Erzgebirge, Eastern Germany).
Journal of
Archaeological Science: Reports
, 4, 487–500.
TOMASELLI, M., DEL PRETE, C., MANZINI, M.
L., 1996.
Parco
Regionale dell’Alto Appennino modenese: l’ambiente vegetale
. Bologna:
Regione Emilia-Romagna.
TONELLI, A., 1895. Industria e commercio. In:
L’Appennino modenese
descritto ed illustrato con 153 incisioni, una carta geografca ed una
geologica
. Rocca S. Casciano: Licinio Cappelli Editore, pp. 827–844.
VERNET, J.L., OGEREAU, P., FIGUEIRAL, I., MACHADO YANES,
C., UZQUIANO, P.,
2001.
Guide d’identifcation des charbons de bois
préhistoriques et récentes, Sud-Ouest de l’Europe: France, Péninsule
ibérique et iles Canaries
. Paris: CNRS Editions.
VESCOVI, E., AMMANN, B., RAVAZZI, C., TINNER,
W., 2010a.
A new Late-glacial and Holocene record of vegetation and fre history
from Lago del Greppo, northern Apennines, Italy.
Vegetation History and
Archaeobotany
, 19, 219–233.
VESCOVI, E., KALTENRIEDER, P., TINNER, W., 2010b. Late-Glacial
and Holocene vegetation history of Pavullo nel Frignano (Northern
Apennines, Italy).
Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology
, 160, 32–45.
WATSON, C., 1996. The vegetation history of the northern Apennines,
Italy: information from three new sequences and a review of regional
vegetational change.
Journal of Biogeography
, 23, 805–841.