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IX/1/2018
InterdIscIplInarIa archaeologIca
natural scIences In archaeology
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
Large Scale Geochemical Signatures Enable to Determine Landscape Use
in the Deserted Medieval Villages
Martin Janovský
a,b,*
, Jan Horák
a,b
a
Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University, Celetná 20, Prague 1, 116 36, Czech Republic
b
Department of Ecology, Faculty of Environmental Sciences, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká 129, Praha – Suchdol, 165 00, Czech Republic
1. Introduction
When studying deserted medieval villages, some light needs
to be shed on the relation between human activity and natural
environment. Thus the demand on the agricultural production
at that time needs to be contrasted with general dispositions
of the natural conditions on the sites, as their disparities may
have led to the collapse of these settlements. The geochemical
methods used in soil surveys can provide some means to gain
information on both the human impact and natural conditions.
Soils on archaeological sites can be studied in many ways:
macroscopically (Kristiansen, 2001), micromorphologically
(Bullock
et al
., 1985; Lisá
et al
., 2015) and geochemically.
Some studies are focused on using Phosphorus (Holliday,
Gartner, 2007) and there are also studies on using multi-
element analysis. These studies are mostly focused on the
diferentiation among archaeological features (houses,
felds, hearths etc.), on the verifcation of human activities,
and on analysing the spatial distribution of these activities
(Davidson
et al
., 2007; Nielsen, Kristiansen, 2014; Roos,
Nolan, 2012; Wilson
et al
., 2009). The topic of the spatial
extent of activities (
e.g.
manuring) or land use types
(arable feld, pastures, meadows, gardens) has also been
studied (Entwistle
et al
., 1998; 2000). In this study, we try
to combine the procedures mentioned above to identify
the soil environment at the selected site within the context
of a chemical refection of individual parts of the village.
However, we mainly focus on multi-element analysis.
Volume IX ● Issue 1/2018 ● Pages 71–80
*Corresponding author. E-mail: mjanovsky@fzp.czu.cz
ARtiCLE inFo
Article history
Received: 2
nd
June 2017
Accepted: 21
st
February 2018
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.24916/iansa.2018.1.5
Key words:
anthropocene
historic land-use
past human impact
multi-element analysis
feld pattern
principal component analysis
AbStRACt
Medieval settlement activities lead to the enrichment of nutrients in archaeological soils. The
fundamental question we ask is whether large-scale mapping of soil horizons can be used to interpret
former medieval activities. A portable X-ray fuorescence spectrometer (pXRF) was used to map the
content of elements in soils over an area of 104.4 ha at the deserted medieval village of Hol, Czech
Republic. Our methods were used to defne diferences in the geochemical composition of the soil
in diferent parts of the village’s residential and feld area (as a quantitative part of the research).
Additionally we tried to interpret the results in terms of the variability of the natural environment
and the medieval village (
i.e.
a more qualitative interpretational part of the research). Results of
XRF spectrometry showed notable diferences in element soil composition in diferent parts of the
village. The presence of very low soil P content is probably caused by inefective manuring practices
in combination with the short duration of the agricultural cultivation. Nevertheless, soil P content
helped us to interpret an area of gardens in homesteads IX, X and XI, where the presence of wooden
constructions for agricultural purposes is presumed. Agricultural management at the deserted medieval
village Hol was connected with organic waste and ash from homesteads (P, Sr, Zn, probably Mn). The
spatial distribution of the soil content of elements and PCA allows us to claim that we can diferentiate
the functional parts of the village based on geochemical methods. At the site of the village we
documented deteriorated natural conditions (pedological): for example, the underground water level
and eluvial horizons. These conditions could have already been afecting the medieval village Hol. The
deserted medieval village Hol does not difer from other deserted medieval villages, where a similar
low agricultural fertility is assumed (for example, Kří).
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Our research is focused on the deserted medieval village
of Hol. This output is part of a series of projects focused on
the medieval settlement and its transition into the modern era
(summary by Klír, 2010a; 2010b). Thematically, it belongs
to the interest of European archaeology in the Medieval-
Modern era transition and the processes of social structure
development, regional diversity, and economic history (for
more comprehensive information, see Klápště, 2016).
In this study, the geochemical compound of soils in the
residential and ploughed area of Hol will be described and
interpreted. As the results correspond to the concept of Late
Medieval Transition (14
th
– 15
th
century), the site could be
matched to similar localities dating back to between the
fourteenth to sixteenth century (Campbell, 2016).
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Site description
The deserted medieval village of Hol is located in the
Czech Republic, ten kilometres east of Prague (Figure 1).
Apparently, the patricians of the Rokycanští clan founded
it in the 1330s or 1340s (Klír, 2016, p. 47). Information
from written records, confrmed through an archaeological
excavation at the site, give the oldest local pottery as coming
from the 14
th
century (Beránek 2013, pp. 30–40). However,
already in 1437, written records described the village of Hol
as deserted.
The village centre coordinates are GPS N 50°5.16977′,
E 14°41.84880′. The Horoušánský stream, fowing from west
to east, divides the village in half. The village is 14 hectares in
area (Beránek, 2011, p. 93). Generally, its former borders may
have been shaped by the embankments of the two no-longer-
existing ponds of Hol (from the east) and Žák (from the west).
The deserted medieval village of Hol is a research locality
monitored by the Department of Archaeology, Faculty of
Arts, Charles University (see Klír, 2016). Its relics have
been endangered due to its current forest management and
therefore a geodetical survey of the research locality was
undertaken and evaluated (Beránek, 2010; 2011; 2013;
Janovský, 2015; Klír, Beránek, 2012; Klír, 2013a; Klír,
2013b). Three new clearings were made between 2013 and
2014, and as a result the relics of the village have been mostly
destroyed in this area, which only confrms the threat to the
locality. These clearings made a geochemical analysis of the
feld in the northern half of the village virtually impossible.
The relics of buildings are clearly identifable, whether
they were residential, or farm constructions, as well as walls,
0 1000 m
Figure 1.
Location of deserted medieval village Hol in the Czech Republic and high resolution map with the position of the study site in the Klánovický
Forest. The plan of the deserted village is provided in black on the green background.
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which used to divide yards from garden areas. Twenty-one to
twenty-four homestead yards have been documented at the
site. They were situated along the northern and southern side
of the village common, which was 470×91 metres in area
(Beránek, 2011, p. 110). The parcels were uniformly sized,
from 40 to 42 meters each. The northern row of yards is
particularly homogenous, whereas the plots in the southern
row difer, some being extremely large compared to the
northern yards (Beránek, 2011, pp. 110–118).
2.2 Geomorphology and geology
The deserted medieval village is placed between 248
and 252 metres above sea level. It is situated at the
geomorphological border of the Čakovická tabule and
Úvalská plošina, which explains the diferent characteristics
of the two halves of the village (Cháb
et al.
, 2007; Demek,
Mackovčin
et al
., 2006, pp. 136 and 528).
The geological disposition of the site is displayed in
Figure 2. The bedrock consists of Ordovician sandstone,
siltstone and clay schist. These rocks prevail in the southern
part of the research area. The northern part mainly consists of
Cretaceous rock clay, carbonaceous shale, coal, siltstone and
sandstone. Quaternary sediments were found mainly along
streams, consisting of sand-loamy, loamy-sand and fuvial
sediments; there were also Aeolian sands in the southern part
of the research area.
From a geomorphological point of view, the site is mostly
fat, the only exceptions being the valley of the Horoušánský
stream, path notches and the embankments of the ponds. The
northern side of the feld area descends towards the stream
and fnishes with a marked terrace. The long-lost pond of Žák
turned into the basis of a food fringe. At the former village
common of Hol, the food fringe reached approximately
ffty centimetres below the surrounding terrain. The terraces
surrounding the fringe start at an altitude of 250 metres
followed by the feld area where probes showed the altitude
to be up to 252 metres. Spirhanzl-Duriš (1929, pp. 125–
126) thoroughly compiled the agricultural potential of the
0 1000 m
Figure 2.
Geological map of the study site (WMS service 2017,
http://mapy.geology.cz
) with position of the village and indication of soil sampling sites
in the former felds. Red triangle indicates gleysol, blue circle illimerized soils and black square cambisols. Numbers: 1 – CRETACEOUS – rock clay,
carbonaceous shale, coal, siltstone, sandstone, conglomerate; 2 – PALAEOZOIC BARRANDIEN, bohemikum – wacke, sandstone, siltstone, clay schist;
3 – PALAEOZOIC BARRANDIEN, bohemikum – clay schist; 4 – QUATERNARY – clay-sand or sand-clay sediments; 5 – QUATERNARY – mixed
sediment; 6 – QUATERNARY – clay, sand, gravel; 7 – QUATERNARY – aeolian sand; 8 – PALAEOZOIC BARRANDIEN, bohemikum – clay schist;
9 – PALAEOZOIC BARRANDIEN, bohemikum – sandstone; 10 – BOHEMIKUM – black shale, iron ore; 11 – PALAEOZOIC BARRANDIEN, bohemikum
– finty shale; 12 – PALAEOZOIC BARRANDIEN, bohemikum – clay schist.
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soils in the area. In this study, we add new information
gained through site observations and drill holes (Figure 2).
Spirhanzl-Duriš pointed out that in the southern part of the
feld area the soil was easily permeable. In some places, the
zone of saturation was as little as 0.5 m under the topsoil.
Therefore, the complete feld area in the southern part is
now drained, as the forest accumulates a lot of water on the
bedrock.
The map of soils (Tomášek, 1990) indicates that the site
is underlain with Carbonate Pelosol (according to the Czech
taxonomy of soils; Cambisols by WRB 2006; Inceptisols by
Soil Taxonomy 1999 of USDA), and so is the Horoušánský
stream with brown gleysols. When making the drill holes,
we observed that Cambisols (by the Czech Taxonomy and
WRB, Inceptisols by USDA) prevail. They consist of a
couple of centimetres deep O horizon, fve-centimetre thick
A horizon, and B horizon that reached a depth of twenty to
thirty centimetres from the surface. The grains are mostly
composed of clay-silt or silt. Illuviation is present in the
Gleysols (by the Czech Taxonomy and WRB; Aquepts
Inceptisols by USDA) near the embankment of the old pond,
but is rather rare in comparison to the rest.
Quitt’s classifcation places the microregion in the warm
area MT2 (MW2 according to Tolasz
et al
., 2007), which
is specifc by its long, warm, and dry summer. Intermittent
seasons are very short; spring and autumn are warm or mildly
warm. The winter is short, mildly warm, dry, or very dry. The
area can be climatically compared to Polabí, Žatecká plateau,
Poohří and the Mostecká basin (Quitt, 1971, p. 14). The
microregion is agro-climatically located at the borderline of
a rather warm area and a rather dry district. Although the
climatic conditions at the location may not be as favourable
as in the fertile lowland in Polabí, they still are among the
best in Bohemia (Kurpelová, Coufal, Čulík, 1975, p. 251).
MT2 (MW2) areas cover 24.2% of the Czech Republic;
warm areas in total cover 25.1% (Květoň, Voženílek, 2011,
p. 7).
There are ffty to sixty summer days in MT2. Average annual
air temperature is 8–9 °C, which corresponds to the average
temperatures in most of Polabí, Lower Povltaví, Posázaví and
a large area of Poohří (in most lowlands along the rivers Labe,
Vltava, Sázava and Ohře). Average annual precipitation reaches
550–600 mm and the sunshine averages 1600–1700 hours a
year (Tolasz
et al
., 2007, pp. 24–25, pp. 68–69 and 166).
2.3 The research area
The research was undertaken over a rectangular area with
a dimension of 1800 m and 580 m. In total, 60 probes were
0 200 m
Figure 3.
LIDAR map of the intravilan (“within village”) of studied deserted village. White lines represent parcel boundaries and terrain edges. The black
line indicates the boundaries of the intravilan, the boundaries of farms and their internal division. Arabic numbers indicate map squares and Latin numbers
indicate the studied homesteads (according to Beránek 2011, p. 115).
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placed in the north and south feld areas. They were divided
into six rows to cover the largest area possible. We used a
basic square model with an additional probe placed in the
middle of the square. The area of the former pond Žák was
included, where we placed 16 probes following the same
square model. The geomorphological terraces were chosen
as a border on both the southern and northern sides of the
area. The last row of probes was situated on the top of the
naturally-formed terraces, so that a comprehensive picture of
the feld area of the deserted medieval village of Hol could
be obtained.
Obviously, getting information about the presence of the
elements monitored around the village centre was important,
so 52 probes were placed in the areas close to the three
former houses, their gardens and related feld areas.
2.4 Research design
The geochemical research of the soils in the area of the village
was undertaken twice. In 2015, the frst research focused on
the geochemical diferences in the gardens, surrounding (up
to 100 m) felds, and the more distant (more than 150 m)
felds. Samples were taken in three homesteads (homesteads
No. IX, X and XI as numbered by Beránek, 2011, p. 115),
which are positioned side by side in the NE part of the
residential area (see Figure 3). Also, the area of the yard
was sampled in farmstead IX. The sampling was designed
as following: fve probes were placed in the corners and the
centre of a square covering the area of the whole garden. This
model was also used in the yard and the felds. The size of
each farmstead determined the size of the squares, but none
signifcantly exceeded 10×20 metres. The homesteads were
chosen to avoid diferences in bedrock which is particularly
dynamic on the site. For further comparison, more probes
were made: for example, in a former pond (Bakkevig, 1980,
p. 75).
In 2016, the second research focused on the deserted
medieval felds. The research area, chosen to the north
and to the south of the village, is most likely only a part of
the whole feld area. LIDAR data confrmed that the area
researched was used in medieval times. A grid of spots was
placed so that it covered the cultivated area at its full length,
directly from the homestead walls to the end of the felds at
the natural terraces, this area being clearly delineated through
the LIDAR data, as well as directly seen in the terrain. We
omitted the residential area and the railway corridor in the
grid of spots. The research area is marked by the terraces and
is thus not regular. Altogether 76 probes were made. The grid
is drawn in Figure 2.
The sampling design was based on the mechanical layers
with samples being taken in 5–10, 15–20 and 25–30 cm of
depth. We focused on the presence of gleyic processes
and
the E horizon in the soil profle of probes.
2.5 Analytical and statistical methods
The samples were dried (in 40 °C for 10 hours) and sieved.
The fraction under 2 mm was then analysed. We used a
portable ED-XRF (PXRF) analyser Delta Professional by
Olympus InnovX with the Soil Geochem measurement
mode to analyse the samples (for applications of XRF
spectrometry, see Canti, Huisman, 2015; Hürkamp
et al
.,
2009; Kalnicky, Singhvi, 2001; Šmejda
et al
., 2017). It
should be mentioned that the method we used obtains almost-
total concentrations of elements in the sediment compared to
the most used methods that mainly work with near-organic-
available fractions. However, some studies have used near-
total concentrations successfully (Entwistle
et al
., 1998;
2000; Wilson
et al
., 2005). All samples were irradiated for
one minute – 30 s of 10 kV beam and 30 s of 40 kV beam.
The used PXRF model provides us with data in weight ppm.
The quality of the device results was successfully tested by
BAS Rudice Ltd. (www.bas.cz) on 55 reference materials
(
e.g.
SRM, 2709a, 2710a, 2711a, OREAS 161, 164, 166,
RTC 405, 408). Each sample was tested fve times; the fnal
value is the arithmetic average of the fve results.
To obtain more input data, we decided to analyse the data
from both seasons together – the collection of 363 samples.
We measured 38 elements (basic pXRF analyser setting). Due
to some limitations of the measuring device, not all elements
reached the limit of detection in all samples. Therefore, we
have chosen these elements for the analyses of concentrations:
Al, Si, P, K, Ti, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Rb, Sr, Zr, Pb,
Th and LE (light elements –
i.e.
overall concentration of
elements from H to Na, which are not recognizable separately
due to the limitations of the measuring device). We also
used principal component analysis (PCA). We chose for it
those elements which had reached the limit of detection in a
suitable number of cases. The element with the least number
of successful measurements was P with 163 cases (Table 1).
Missing values of these elements were replaced by a half of
the minimum detected value for each element.
We did not test all elements because their limits of
detection in samples difer. We used ilr-transformed data of
the original concentrations for further analyses (Reimann
et al
., 2008). The abbreviation “ilr” stands for isometric log-
ratio transformation, which should be used while analysing
data of a compositional character (Reimann
et al
., 2008;
Reimann
et al
., 2012). We used R version 3.4.1 for principal
component analysis (PCA) and for spatial visualization of
the transformed data (R Core Team 2017). R worked with
packages gstat (Pebesma, 2004), raster (Hijmans, 2016) and
robCompositions (Templ
et al
., 2011).
3. Results
3.1 Concentrations, spatial distribution of elements
An important fnding is: how many times was the element
measured (Figure 58 and Table 1 in electronic supplementary
material – SOM). Al, Si, K, Ti, Fe, Zn, As, Rb, Sr, Zr and
LE were measured in every case. By contrast, elements such
as Mg, S, Cl, Ca, Co, Se, Y, Mo and precious metals were
under the limit of detection of the pXRF used. The values of P
content and its spatial distribution were surprising, since it was
measured in only 163 samples and therefore was under the
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limit of detection in the other samples. The limit of detection
of P is usually between 250 to 300 ppm (based on our
experience with the results of the device we used). We would
have expected higher values in a deserted medieval village.
The type of distribution is an important indicator to
defne the anthropogenic infuence on a soil (Nolan,
Redmond, 2015). Here we describe the most common. A
normal-like distribution refers to Al, As, K, LE, Pb, Rb. A
bimodal distribution refers to Cr, P, and Th. Skewed normal
distribution is the most common and refers to Cu, Fe, Mn,
Ni, Si, Sr, Th, Ti, Zn and Zr (See the fgures in SOM).
The elements can be divided into several groups by their
spatial distribution of content. The frst group is characterised
by their accumulation in the “intravilan” (“within the village”
– a built-up area) and the village common (Cu, Fe, Ni, P, Pb
and Zn, – Figures 13–18, 28–36 and 52–54 in SOM). The
second main group of elements is spatially manifested in
the feld area (LE, Mn, Sr – Figures 22–27 and 43–45 in
SOM). The third group consists of those elements that are
without any obvious pattern (Al, As, Cr, K, Rb, Si, Th, Ti, Zr,
– Figures 4–12, 19–21, 37–42, 46–51 and 55–57 in SOM).
Furthermore, we can comment on the signifcant spatial
relationships. The higher phosphorus (P) content is not only
within the village common, but also in the homesteads and
adjacent gardens (homesteads IX, X and XI in Figures 3
and 31 in SOM). This content was measured only at a depth
of 15–20 cm. Light Elements (LE) make up an interesting
spatial pattern in the northeast of the site. The pattern covers
the area of homesteads, gardens, and adjacent feld pattern
(Figures 22–24 in SOM).
Table 1.
Summary statistical description of selected measured elements. Length stands for the total number of samples, count for successfully measured
samples, and NAs for unsuccessfully measured samples leading to blank cells in the table of measurements. The elements are presented in weight %.
MeasuresArealAlSiPKTiCrMnFeNiCuZnAsRbSrZrPbTh
Lengthall
363363363363363363363363363363363363363363363363363
Countall
363363163363363
325
361363
294
362363363363363363362
333
NAsall00200003820
69
100000130
Maxall10.7934.40.252.920.880.020.33
26.15
0.020.010.0300.02
0.06
0.050.010
Meanall
6.48
27.810.05
1.610.61
0.010.042.4100000.010.010.0300
Sdevall1.124.350.040.330.100.042.1000000.010.0100
Medianall
6.43
28.770.04
1.60.63
0.010.031.9200000.010.010.0400
MADall
0.96
3.80.020.250.0800.03
0.61
0000000.0100
Minall
3.679.62
0.020.430.230.010.01
0.68
0000000.0100
Table 2.
Eigenvalues and explained variability of PCA. The results for the frst seven components explained almost 95% of variability. Only PCs with an
absolute value greater or equal to 0.3 are presented. For all PCs and values, see ESM.
Comp. 1Comp. 2Comp. 3Comp. 4Comp. 5Comp. 6Comp. 7
Al
Si
P
–0.42–0.84
K
Ti
Cr
Mn
–0.69
0.51
–0.36
Fe0.49
Ni
0.6–0.46
0.45
–0.31
Cu0.34
Zn0.47
As0.31
–0.45
Rb
Sr0.390.48
–0.49
Zr
Pb
–0.34–0.47
Th0.37
–0.58–0.52–0.31
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3.2 PCA
The PCA extracted 17 principal components (PCs); for the
results, see Table 2 and Figures 59–75 in SOM. The frst
four components explained almost 80% of the variability;
the frst eight components explained 95% of variability. PC1
infuenced Mn and P; it was placed mainly in the village
common, in the northeast from the village and around
homesteads IX, X and XI (Figure 59 in SOM). PC2 (Figure 60
in SOM) infuenced Mn positively and P negatively. Negative
values of PC2 were spatially distributed in the centre of the
village. PC3 infuenced Ni positively and Pb negatively. This
component was accumulated in the centre of the locality at
the village common (Figure 61 in SOM). The spatial patterns
of PC4 and PC5 (Figures 62 and 63 in SOM) difered along a
north-south gradient (Mn, Ni, Th, LE, Pb).
4. Discussion
A geochemical signal could have either a natural or an
anthropogenic origin – and the results from PCA can be
interpreted in those terms. However, we need to consider
several conditions. Our following interpretation relates
to two cases: a) we can associate the results with known
anthropogenic indicators; b) we can connect the spatial
distribution of an element’s content to anthropogenic features.
The frst case would usually need a contribution from more
methods to prove (or at least corroborate) anthropogenic
origin. As we worked only with one basic method (pXRF:
obtaining total concentrations of elements), we used the
second case as a supportive factor for determining the
possible anthropogenic origin of geochemical signals. It was
the spatial connection to the medieval village. To refne our
interpretation, we used PCA – as it could distinguish diferent
inputs hidden within the total elements content in soil (
e.g.
Entwistle
et al
., 1998; Horák, Klír, 2017; Horák
et al
., 2018).
4.1 Elements and PCs interpreted in context
to medieval activities
There were three groups of elements: a) accumulated in the
intravilan (built-up area) and the village common, where they
were manifested by their highest content; b) elements with
their manifestation in the feld area; c) elements without an
obvious pattern; however, in some cases indicating human
activities.
The frst group (Cu, Fe, Ni, P, Pb and Zn) can be interpreted
as being the result of former human activities that led to an
enrichment of the soil content (Entwistle
et al
., 1998; 2000).
The second group (LE, Mn, Sr) can be interpreted as the result
of former human activities, as well as being a result of geology
and the underground water level in the case of Mn (Aston
et al
.,
1998, p. 474; Heršt, 1956; Horák
et al
., 2018, p. 19).
The third group consists of those elements that are without
obvious pattern (Al, As, Cr, K, Rb, Si, Th, Ti, Zr). The last
two groups can be interpreted using the PCA analysis.
The higher content of Mn in soil samples was localised
just within the village common. We presume that the content
of Mn was afected by the pond that formed after the
abandonment of the village. However, PC1 and PC2 both
show correspondence with Mn. It seems that the presence of
Mn in the intravilan is afected by both the geology (PC1)
and former medieval activities (PC2). Many studies have
proved that Mn content in soils comes from organic matter or
organic waste, including manure (
e.g.
Nielsen, Kristiansen,,
2014; Wilson
et al
., 2008).
The p
resence of Mn in the area of
the felds with a north-south gradient is a refection of the
geology (PC1).We have to also consider the underground
water table, which was higher in the part of the northern
feld, where Quaternary fuvial sediment of a former stream
is situated (see Heršt, 1956 and the high concentration of Mn
in underground water; Figure 2).
Strontium content difered at the deserted village Hol. The
intravilan of the site and the northern part of the intravilan
were enriched with Sr (Figures 44 and 45 in SOM). This
element could be derived from bones and be connected
with the weathering of the soil. Some studies showed that
Sr is present in ancient houses and in the area of abandoned
arable felds (Wilson
et al
., 2005; Nielsen, Kristiansen, 2014,
p. 396). However, at Hol, Sr showed signifcant geological
diferences between the northern and southern part of the
village. The anthropogenic factor of Sr can be seen in PC3
(intravilan and built-up area of Hol).
Zn is usually connected to agricultural activities. The
presence of Zn relates to the soil environment (Klimek, 2002),
the organic matter in the soil as a product of agriculture/
horticulture (da Costa, Kern, 1999), archaeological features
(Linderholm, Lundberg, 1994; Wilson
et al.
, 2006), burning
(as part of ash – Nielsen, Kristiansen, 2014), and manuring
(Wilson
et al.
, 2005; 2009). The Zn content in soil is increased
in the vicinity of ancient buildings (Lewis
et al.
, 1993). At
Hol, this element was found at homesteads, gardens, and the
village common (PC1, PC3). Ash and organic parts were
deposited in those areas, leading to the enrichment of the
soil.
We use descriptions like “higher” and “lower” P content in
the text below – these descriptions are only relevant within
the context of the studied area of Hol. P content levels in the
garden area of the northern part of the village do not difer
greatly from each other, but with some exceptions (PC2).
The measured values are rather high in comparison to the
surrounding areas, which might indicate the possible presence
of high agricultural buildings of a wooden construction (see
evidence of stalls in the deserted medieval village of Svídna;
Smetánka, 1988, p. 105).
Though P was identifed in the soil, this was only in some
parts of the centre of the village. The high P content in the ruins
of a stone wall in homestead IX is most likely the outcome
of past human activity. Areas at a greater distance from the
village display only a negligible content of phosphorus, thus
raising the question of how much the medieval felds were
fertilized, or whether they were fertilized at all.
The hypothesis of the presence of some mainly-wooden
constructions is, at present, just an interpretation resulting
from the geochemical survey, which shows a surprisingly high
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78
P content in comparison to the rest of the site. Geochemistry
carries the potential to identify their presence. But a fuller
execution of the research would need some diferent
parameters to identify the exact position of the constructions:
such as increasing the density of the grid or the application of
diferent methods; for example, the extrusion of the available
fraction. Interesting results might also be reached through
a content analysis and identifcation of organic substances,
for example, lipids. However, we have not tried to verify
the hypothesis through excavation, an obvious method
which would provide the information needed with absolute
certainty, because it would be a diferent type of research and
would be too invasive for our purposes.
The use of pXRF has raised the question of the analysis
validity. Our approach is supported by the results at Tel
Burna (Šmejda
et al.
, 2017), where the results were obtained
from samples collected in the feld, measured directly by
the same pXRF we used and then independently measured
by ICP-OES from an aqua regia solution. High correlation
(r>0.81, p<0.01) was found between the two sets of data. We
were aware of signal interference between the elements and
the sample matrix efect; however, this efect does not afect
the ability of pXRF to measure samples precisely (Šmejda
et al
., 2017, p. 71).
4.2 Historical interpretation
Soil tillage in the village of Hol can be compared to
systems of cultivation in villages with similar soils and
environmental dispositions. Tomáš Klír has researched
such sites around Nymburk. Unlike the deserted village of
Kří (now covered by the forest Kersko), there are the four
villages of “Lhota”: Kostelní, Písková, Přední, Vrbová.
These villages are still inhabited (Klír, 2008, p. 39). The
feld pattern of the majority of Lhotas was “Gewannfur”
(German “village corridor”) with a partial continuity of
the Záhumenice principle. Gewannfur is a system where
the ground is divided into several units, which are further
divided into narrow plots. These units are not directly related
to the economy of a homestead. In the Záhumenice principle,
the ground is divided into long strips across the cadastral
territory. The arable felds covered almost the whole area of
the agricultural ground of the villages. The basic unit then
in use in agriculture was a long strip, which took maximum
advantage of the otherwise minimal variability of natural
conditions (Klír, 2008, p. 81).
It seems that this system of agriculture works in places
with high quality soil (chernozems in Polabí), and –
eventually – allows time for some forms of modifcation,
such as the fertilisation of unproductive plots. But the
strategy appears inefcient in sites with worse conditions
(
e.g.
aeolian sands in the Nymburk area, illuviation around
Hol). When a crisis comes, the production of manure is
sharply reduced on such sites and thus the material that
could help balance the soil quality is missing. This is
supported by the fact that not all plots were inhabited at
the same time, which means the whole feld area was never
used completely simultaneously. Given the bad soil quality,
this must have led to a poor agricultural harvest in some
years.
Based on analogies to the Nymburk area (see Klír, 2008),
we deduce that an agricultural system of Gewannfur without
meadows was used. This system could not work with the
sandy soils, poor in mineral content, of Hol and neither
could it work in the other deserted villages in the Nymburk
area (Klír, 2013a, pp. 153–154). Other villages in the area
adapted to the soil conditions by fallowing for longer
periods as well as downsizing the number of homesteads.
This adaptation was successful, as they were not deserted
during the Middle Ages. Concerning the elements in the soil,
Hol can be compared to the Kří site, where a near-to-sterile
condition of the soil has also been geochemically confrmed
(Hejcman
et al.
, 2013, p. 657; Klír, 2013a, p. 154). The lower
soil quality and yields, the lower the number of cattle and
thus also the manure. The greater the area of more sterile
ground, the less the ground could be fertilised, and the three-
feld system applied (Klír, 2008, p. 34). As successful as it
was elsewhere, the light sand soils around Sadská did not
provide enough fertility to use the three-feld system, which
was refected in the fuctuations in intensity of use with
fallow systems in the feld areas (Klír, 2008, p. 35). A similar
process probably led to the decline of Hol.
Written sources are able to inform us about the shape of
the village and how it functioned. The names of villages
could have been derived as much as from the conceptions
of the inhabitants of neighbouring settlements and how they
perceived the place as anything else. They named the villages
after the people or the conditions of the surrounding area.
The name of “Hol” indicates a barren place. Even the name
might indicate a problem with its settlement or the village’s
later use. There is a high number of places called Hol in
Bohemia and a general, yet clear, link to their agricultural
and environmental problems has been confrmed (Profous,
1947, pp. 586–587).
And last, but not least, we observed the presence of an
E horizon. In Hol, a white soil E horizon was observed
in probes from the northern part of the village, which
confrms illuviation and podsolic processes. Under certain
circumstances, cultivation with the plough can prevent a
delay in the production of an E horizon. We suppose that the
pedological and geological conditions on the site (Spirhanzl-
Duriš, 1929, pp. 125–126) led to the formation of illuviation.
The E horizon is situated in the neighbourhood of the village
in the northern part of the felds. For example, Søren M.
Kristiansen dealt with the relation between podsols (haplic
Podsols by WRB, Spodosols by USDA) and agricultural
activity in his study (Kristiansen, 2001, pp. 273–289), where,
through macroscopic observations, he proved a relationship
between the current state of soil horizons and usage of the
ground during the Bronze Age on the Alstrup Krat site
(2000 BP). Areas which were not or only a little cultivated are
now covered with podsols, but intensively-cultivated areas
are covered with hyperdystric arenosols (by WRB, Entisols
Psamments by USDA). However, the situation in the felds
around the deserted village of Spindelbach in Krušné Hory
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79
(Ore Mountains, Erzgebirge) does not provide evidence of
such a relationship (Horák, Klír, 2017).
5. Conclusion
The long-term research interest of the Department of
Archaeology, Faculty of Arts, Charles University, in
the deserted medieval village of Hol has allowed us to
combine the humanities and some technical approaches. A
geochemical survey of its area is thus only revealing a part
of the whole picture. The agricultural base of the village
was dependent on its natural conditions, and signs of human
activity are clearly identifable in the areas of the gardens in
the northern part of the village. The element content (As, Cu,
Fe, Ni, P, Pb, Zn, Mn, Sr, and LE) and PCA (PC2, PC3, PC7)
show areas that relate to former medieval activities. We do
not know, however, whether it was a structural, economic or
agricultural activity.
The geochemistry was characterised by a very low content
of soil P. We presume there were inefective manuring
practices combined with the short duration of agricultural
cultivation. Nevertheless, the soil P content helped us to
interpret the area of gardens in the homesteads IX, X and XI,
where the presence of wooden constructions for agricultural
purposes is presumed based on the P content measured there.
Agricultural management at Hol was connected with
quantities of organic waste and ash from the homesteads
(Zn, probably Mn). The spatial distribution of soil content
of elements and the PCA allows us to claim that we can
diferentiate the functional parts of the village based on
purely geochemical methods. Generally, the content of
measured elements was lower away from the centre of the
village. The highest content of the majority of observed
elements was found within the village common and in the
area of the homesteads.
The village of Hol fell into a crisis during the economic
transformations during the Middle Ages and has remained
deserted thereafter. The causes of the decline, as in most
cases, can be linked to a combination of several causes. The
commercialisation of agricultural production between the
14
th
and 16
th
century caused growing disparities between
the areas with fertile land and those areas with infertile
land. This disparity might have been further deepened by
the village’s rather short distance from the city of Prague.
And last, but not least, there was the problem of the mineral
exhaustion of the soil, which had been depleted by the
inadequate agricultural procedures, which then led to the
collapse of the village.
Acknowledgements
This output was created within the project
“Kulturní
techniky: materialita, medialita a imaginace”
(Cultural
techniques: materiality, mediation and imagination),
subproject
“Středověká ves a její přírodní prostředí.
Mezioborový výzkum zaniklých vsí v zázemí Prahy”
(Mediaeval village and its environment: interdisciplinary
research of deserted villages in surroundings of Prague)
undertaken at Charles University from Specifc University
Research in 2018. This research was supported by the
Charles University Grant Agency, project No. 307415 “New
insights on a functional structure of abandoned villages’ feld
systems and on relationship between human activities and
environment by way of pedochemical methods”; by Specifc
University Research project 2017 – 260419, performed at
the Faculty of Arts of Charles University; by the GA CR No.
16-20763S “The Landscape of Medieval Prague“ and by the
Charles University Project Progress No. 3 (Q07), Centre for
Medieval Studies.
This paper is dedicated to Viktorie A. Dančová.
We would like to thank Lenka Lisá for useful and inspiring
advices and comments.
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