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VIII/1/2017
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of the Pottery Shards from Dahan-e Ghulaman,
the Achaemenid Site in Sistan, East of Iran
Hossein Sarhaddi-Dadian
a,b*
, Hossein Moradi
c
, Zuliskandar Ramli
d
, Vahid Purzarghan
b
a
Department of Archaeology, Faculty of Art and Architecture, University of Zabol, 98615-538, Bonjar Ave, Zabol City, Iran
b
Archaeological Research Centre, Faculty of Art and Architecture University of Zabol, 98615-538, Bonjar Ave, Zabol City, Iran
c
Iranian Centre for Archaeological Research, Tir Street 30, Imam Khomeini Avenue, Tehran, Iran
d
Institute of the Malay World and Civilization, The National University of Malaysia, 43600 Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
1. Introduction
Sistan is located in a vast territory in the south-east of Iran,
and a large part of it today is in Afghanistan. The Sistan
region, along with Baluchestan, constitutes the Sistan and
Baluchestan Province of Iran (see Moradi
et al.
2013;
2014; Sarhaddi-Dadian 2015a; 2015b). Although the land
has had a major role in the development and spread of
Iranian Civilization and culture (Sheikhakbari
et al.
2015),
the material culture of Sistan was not introduced to other
parts of Iran. Sistan with its subtropical climate is one of
the arid regions of Asia. This area’s climate is diferent
from the surrounding areas with their steppe climate, wet
winters and dry summers. In Sistan, annual rainfall is very
low and between September and May this amount is only
about 50 mm, with the rest of the year dry with no rain.
Since the volume of annual rainfall in Sistan is less than
300 mm, the land is potentially unsuitable for cultivation.
The warmest months of the year are July and August, with an
average temperature of 32˚C, and the coldest is January with
an average temperature of 5/7˚C. However, with adequate
quantities of water, the land can be cultivated. Important
natural phenomena in this region are rivers and lakes, each
having had an important role in the narrative history and
development of civilization in the Sistan district (Sarhaddi-
Dadian 2013). During the Achaemenid Empire, this region
was one of the most signifcant areas of ancient Iran. The
name of this state, in the inscription of Achaemenid’s King
Darush, is Zarankeh, (Sharpe 2004) and Drangiana in Greek
classical historian reports. Alexander the Great spent some
time in Drangiana on his way to conquer India. According
to the Greek geographers and historians, the location of
Alexander the Great was to the north of Sistan, which was
called Proftazia. This location has been mentioned in Sistan
historical books. Reaching for power by the Greek Army, they
took Sistan and established the Western Greek Government.
Apparently Sistan was the most important province, for the
crown prince ruled as lieutenant governor in Drangiana. The
Greeks created many cities in Sistan. Ptolemaios, the famous
Volume VIII ● Issue 1/2017 ● Pages 35–41
*Corresponding author. E-mail: h.sarhaddi@uoz.ac.ir
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 21
st
September 2016
Accepted: 31
st
May 2017
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/ 10.24916/iansa.2017.1.3
Key words:
archaeometry
pottery
X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF)
Achaemenid
Dahan-e Ghulaman
ABSTRACT
The aim of this study was to determine whether pottery shards from Dahan-e Ghulaman were locally
made or imported from elsewhere. Dahan-e Ghulaman is one of the most ancient settlements in Iran’s
Sistan during the Achaemenid period. The study shows that the antiquity of the site goes back to the
6
th
and 5
th
centuries BC, the earthenware found in Dahan-e Ghulaman being simple and unpainted in
buf and bufsh red colours. However, another type of pottery also can be observed in the Dahan-e
Ghulaman collection; these are painted red inside and milky outside, and are similar to ceramics from
the Nadali site in Afghanistan. The dishes include short cups with wide mouths in red and orange.
Archaeologists believe that most of the pottery shards are locally made; hence, to test this hypothesis,
a scientifc analysis was done to determine the chemical composition of the pottery shards. X-Rays
Fluorescence (XRF) was applied to determine the major and trace elements of the pottery shards. The
results demonstrate that most of the pottery shards are in the same group and this strongly suggests that
they are local products. Additionally, based on the major and trace elements, it can be suggested that
fve samples are not locally made.
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Hossein Sarhaddi-Dadian, Hossein Moradi, Zuliskandar Ramli, Vahid Purzarghan: X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of the Pottery Shards from Dahan-e Ghulaman,
the Achaemenid Site in Sistan, East of Iran
36
Greek writer, has mentioned the eleven largest and most
famous cities in Drangiana (Mehrafarin 2016). Considering
the archaeological evidence, most of the archaeologists
believe that the site of Dahan-e Ghulaman had been the
capital of Sistan during the Achaemenid period.
2. Dahan-e Ghulaman site
Dahan-e Ghulaman is located about 44 km from Zabol city
and 2 km from the Kale New Village in the north of the
province of Sistan and Baluchestan, Iran (Figure 1). This
site was discovered and excavated by Umberto Scerrato in
1960–1965 (Scerrato 1966). After the Iranian revolution, in
October 2000, Seyyed Mansour Seyyed Sajjadi began a new
series of excavations in Dahan-e Ghulaman (Sajjadi 2007).
The reports and maps from the Dahan-e Ghulaman site
prepared by the Italian demonstrate that the site was covered
by dunes located alongside the Hirmand River among several
historical sites (Mariani 1977; Sceratto 1962).
The buildings are arranged in fairly regular rows, and
due to the 120-day wind phenomenon which always blows
from northwest to the southeast, all of the entrance doors are
located on the southern side of the building or wind breakers
have been built in front of them. The main walls of buildings
have been constructed using strong bricks. The rooms’ roofs
are crescent dome-shaped and they are located next to each
other forming a beautiful architecture (Mariani 1977).
The buildings are distributed over an area 200 m in length,
from 300 m to 800 m in width and about 300 m from the
dried Senate River Delta. Only worn and broken pottery
shards have been found scattered across the city. Owing to
its size and extent of the buildings in the city, it is clear that
the main city had been larger (Genito 1990). This city had
a short life of between 150 to 200 years in the 6
th
and 5
th
centuries BC. The city had been built with a remarkable plan
and for a specifc purpose, making it a good example for the
study of trends in urban history (Cattenat, Gardin 1977).
Dahan-e Ghulaman had been shrinking slowly and the
evidence shows that no signifcant artefact has been found
in the excavation. The city had been evacuated voluntarily
and not due to external factors such as war or fre. After that,
Dahan-e Ghulaman had been used seasonally by nomads and
shepherds. Flowing sand gradually covered all the buildings
for more than 2000 years (see Later, Genito 2010; Sajjadi
2006).
3. Material and methods
3.1 Dahan-e Ghulaman’s Potteries
According to the morphology and typology, Dahan-e
Ghulaman’s pottery does not show many variations.
A chronological analysis of the pottery by Genito has shown
that the antiquity of the site goes back to the 6
th
and 5
th
centuries BC. (Genito 1990). In total, the earthenware of
Dahan-e Ghulaman is simple and non-painted in buf and
bufsh red colours, but another type of pottery can be seen
among the Dahan-e Ghulaman collection. These have a red
colour inside and a milky colour outside and look like the
pottery of the Nadali site in Afghanistan (Dales 1977). The
dishes include short cups with open mouths in red and orange
colours. Some of them have the potters’ signs. A group of
them have been detected from room No. 1 in building No. 15
beside the large pottery oven, and other diferent fragments
can be seen in rooms No. 2 and 3. Besides the cups, diferent
types of pottery, including deep bowls and vats, can be
observed. The pottery objects in building No. 15 can be
divided into four groups:
1. A large part of building No. 15 had been made from
cylindrical pipes, and these were flled at the bottom with
rough bodies in buf and orange, and found in rooms No. 1,
2 and 3. The cylindrical pipes flled at the bottom are placed
at a distance of 20–25 cm from each other in room No. 1,
while the cylindrical pipes in room No. 2 can be observed
as irregular, scattered, and broken, along with scarred and
unscarred hand stones. The lengths of the pipes are almost
identical—between 23 and 30 cm. It does not seem that these
diferences had a signifcant impact on the use the pottery
tubes were put to. The edge shape and holes created in the
pipes are not in a standard form, and they are diferent from
each other. The whole diameter decreases gradually from the
top to the bottom, and the indication is that they have been
created by a great twist. Apparently they have similar shapes,
but with diferent rim shapes, which have been divided into
the following fve types: 1. Pipes with an everted globular
rim, 2. Deep pipes with fat edges, 3. Pipes with fully-drawn
everted rims, 4. Pipes with angled edges, which are convex,
Figure 1.
The location of the Dahan-e Ghulaman site in the Sistan Region.
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Hossein Sarhaddi-Dadian, Hossein Moradi, Zuliskandar Ramli, Vahid Purzarghan: X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of the Pottery Shards from Dahan-e Ghulaman,
the Achaemenid Site in Sistan, East of Iran
37
5. Pipes with a cylindrical body, and inverted rims (Sajjadi
2002).
2. Large dishes: these pieces of pottery have been obtained
from building No. 2. However, we are unable to reconstruct
them as they are damaged. This pottery can be classifed in
terms of the building techniques employed, such as: 1. Red
rough pottery mixed with oil materials that include small
and large dishes, 2. Common pottery, including red, orange,
and buf colours with a clear cover, which had been locally-
produced in Dahan-e Ghulaman. The shapes were mostly
scaphoid cups, vats with fat bases, ventricular vats with
trumpet-shaped bases – but these are very few in number, a
kind of cylindrical pot, and large pots with a trumpet base.
Though there were few types of decoration on the pottery,
they included straight lines, wavy lines, and stylized motifs
(Scerrato 1966b).
3. Monochrome pottery with sieved soil and diferent
colours: the pottery shards are in red, pink, brown and
yellowish colours; the dishes have thin bodies and include
oblique bodies, scaphoid, stemless cups, and large containers.
All of the pottery shards were simple except for one that had
a geometrical vine shoot (Scerrato 1962).
4. Polished bicolor pottery: these pieces usually have red
colours inside and a white colour outside, and a rather thick
glaze (Scerrato 1966b).
According to Genito who studied them, the pottery of
Dahan-e Ghulaman can be divided into two major groups as
follow: A. Unrestricted dishes, and B. Restricted ones.
3.1.1 Unrestricted dishes
1. Cylindrical-conical beakers: These pottery pieces are
medium-sized and their heights are greater than their width.
The cross-sectional profle shows a small concave body and
a vertical height with sharp edges. They are in some ways
similar to the cylindrical containers that had spread out
from the traditional period, the Iron Age in the northeast
of Iran (Cattenat, Gardin 1977). There can be two diferent
typologies common between the northeast of Iran and Sistan.
The former is 17.30 cm high and the latter is 10.15 cm.
The base of the frst type is usually an inverted cone that is
separated with great variation in the body (Genito 1990). The
vessel type of the Iron Age can have certain forms in north-
eastern Iran, with pear-shaped biconical beakers at Shahre
Sokhta (see Buson, Vidale 1983; Tosi 1969). The containers
of Dahan-e Ghulaman have two features, related to the
production of the kick wheel, which include concentric lines
and symmetrical signs on the outer surface of the base. The
spiral is created by moving the kick wheel at the bottom
level of their insides (Genito 1990), and is comparable to
the pottery shards of Pasargad site in terms of edge form and
container shape (Stronach 1978).
2. Carinated Cups: The most distinctive morphological
features of these cups are steep slopes that have been located
at 2/3 the height of the containers. The name “Carinated
Cups” was suggested by Sceratto (Sceratto 1962), while other
researchers have used diferent expressions, such as
assiettes
carenees a levre horizontal
(Cattenat, Gardin 1977), or
shallow bowls with a prominent horizontal rim (Vogelsong
1987). These cups or bowls were widely distributed in
Iranian territories from the Iron Age until the 3
rd
or 4
th
centuries BC. This type of pottery also has been detected
from Arachosia and northwest Iran, but these are diferent
from the shapes at Dahan-e Ghulaman, and have still not
been found on this site. Carinated cups have been scattered
in various geographic areas. They have been observed from
the northwest of Iran to Afghanistan. The carinated cups of
Sistan can be observed from Sorkhe Dagh, the Babajan Site,
Pasargad, Persepolis, and Yahya Tape.
3. Truncated Conical Cups: These are very small items
with an everted edge and are fat; generally they are from
good material in a cream colour. They have very special
shapes, slightly similar to carinated cups, but without the
steep slope (Genito 1990).
4. Dishes: They are low and shallow. One of them has a
height of 5 cm and a rim diameter of 20 cm. They are unpainted
produced wares in red and cream colours, seemingly of
local production, but there have been similarities found in
Afghanistan, central Asia, and northwest Iran.
5. Basins: The basins are large-sized containers with a
height of 45 cm and diameter of 70 cm. Their main features
include a moulded rim, horn-shaped base, oblique-sided body
and they are analogous with the pottery of Kalamary and
Bactria. Other shapes selected from this site are spherical,
globular bowls, which are divided into two types: large and
small. The small one is closed, similar to the Sorkhe Dagh
site, while the large items are comparable with the Dur-khan
site in Pakistan (Genito 1990).
3.1.2 Restricted Vessels
Three types of this pottery have been discovered on this site.
The frst type has a very large size: 70 cm in height, 71 cm
in diameter, a rim diameter of 36 cm, and horn-shaped base
of 19 cm. A similar type has been found at diferent sites,
such as: Giyan and Siyalk in northwestern Iran; Anau, and
Namazga VI in northeastern Iran; in Margiana at Jaz Tape III,
Ancy, and Taxirbai, Dashli 1 and 3 in Bactria, and Nadali in
Afghanistan. The second type includes a cylindrical body,
a big mouth and horn-shaped base, with a 60 cm height
and 29 cm rim diameter. The pottery has its most common
relationship with the examples of the Kjuzeli Gry and
Dasli 1 and 3 sites. The third type has a fat bottom that is
oval-shaped with a diferent kind of edge and neck, though
with very few examples present (Ibid, Plate Nos. 96–98).
3.2 Sample Preparation
For the analysis, in order to determine the chemical
composition of the pottery, each sample of weight 0.7 g
was pulverized, heated up at a temperature of 105
°
C for one
hour and mixed until homogenous with the fux powder, a
type of Spectrofux 110 (product of Johnson & Mathey).
These mixtures were baked for one hour in a furnace
with a temperature of 1100
°
C. The homogenous molten
material was moulded in a container and cooled gradually
into pieces of fused glass with a thickness of 2 mm and a
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Hossein Sarhaddi-Dadian, Hossein Moradi, Zuliskandar Ramli, Vahid Purzarghan: X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of the Pottery Shards from Dahan-e Ghulaman,
the Achaemenid Site in Sistan, East of Iran
38
diameter of 32 mm. The samples were of 1:10 dilution. Press
pallet samples were prepared by mixing 1.0 g of samples
together with 6.0 g of boric acid powder; then, a pressure of
20 psi (137.895 kPa) was applied using hydraulic pressure
equipment. The samples of fused pallets and pressed
pallets were analyzed by wavelength-dispersive X-Ray
Fluorescence (WD-XRF). A Philips PW1480 sequential
spectrometer ftted with a rhodium-anode X-Ray tube (3kW
60kV) was used for the analysis of major and trace elements.
The spectrometers were controlled using Philips X40
application software package version 3.2 and 4.01 running
under the DEC VMS operating system.
Scatter plot diagrams of SiO
2
versus CaO, and CaO versus
MgO, were then performed to demonstrate the diferences
among the groups and was analyzed using Microsoft Excel
software. The main purpose was to see the distribution of the
samples in the group. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA)
was applied to the chemical data from the three components,
namely silica (SiO
2
), calcium (CaO) and magnesium (MgO).
All the 15 pottery shards were sampled in order to verify
the presence of compositional groups of pottery shards
diferentiated by their probable major element sources.
The measurement of distance used in the assignment rule
was based on Ward’s Linkage and the Squared Euclidean
Distance algorithm. The results are presented in the form of a
dendrogram (Figures 5 and 6), showing in graphical form the
distance between the pottery samples on the basis of their SiO
2
and CaO, and CaO and MgO percentages. The applicability
of the analytical methods for the multi-elemental analysis of
the pottery shards by XRF was evaluated using an analysis
of certifed reference material, 315 Fire Brick (Calibration:
G_FBVac28mm) for major elements.
4. Results and Discussion
4.1 XRF
The X-ray fuorescence analysis of the 15 pottery shards
samples was conducted to determine the major elements
content in the pottery shards from Dahan-e Ghulaman
(Figure 2). In the compositional analysis, each compositional
group was taken to represent locally manufactured pottery
based on the assumptions of the Provenance Postulate and the
Criterion of Abundance. The Provenance Postulate assumes
that compositional diferences among diferent sources are
greater than diferences within a single source, and that
these diferences can be recognized by the analytical or
compositional approach (Weigand
et al.
1977). The Criterion
of Abundance, on the other hand, holds that a ceramic unit
(in this case, elemental abundance) strongly represented at
a site, can be presumed to be a local manufacturer, while
those scarcely represented are non-local (Bishop
et al.
1982).
The pottery samples show a quite homogeneous composition
except for three samples, namely QH6, QH8 and QH26,
that show high calcium content. The analysis also showed
that samples QH8 and QH7 did not have any major sodium
content. Additionally, half of the samples did not have any
major sulphur content (see Table 1).
Figure 2.
Potshards discovered from the site.
QH32
QH29QH6
QH3
QH34
QH2
QH18
QH38
QH8
QH20
QH19
QH23
QH17
QH1
QH26
0 10 cm
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Hossein Sarhaddi-Dadian, Hossein Moradi, Zuliskandar Ramli, Vahid Purzarghan: X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of the Pottery Shards from Dahan-e Ghulaman,
the Achaemenid Site in Sistan, East of Iran
39
The range of silica dry weight is from 54.9 to 64.5%.
The content of aluminium is from 10.8% to 17.6%. The
content of iron and calcium are 5.4 to 9.9% and 4.5 to 7.7%,
respectively. Alkaline elements such as magnesium, sodium
and potassium show their dry weight as 3.8 to 6.6, 0.98 to 3.1
and 1.1 to 1.8%, respectively. The manganese and titanium
contents are 0.058 to 0.65% and 0.37 to 0.65%, respectively.
The percentage of P
2
O
5,
which is high, shows that same of
the samples have been used as containers for some organic
materials. Analysis also shows that strontium has a dry
weight percentage from 0.052 to 0.68%. The analysis of
Dahan-e Ghulaman pottery shards shows that none of the
shards contained a very high percentage of dry weight of
lead. Pottery made in India usually has a very high content
of lead, which was added as a colouring agent (Caled 1991).
Analysis on Shahr-I-Sokhta pottery shards showed that one
of the pottery shards had a high content of lead (see Moradi
et al.
2013; Sarhaddi-Dadian
et al.
2015b).
4.2 Scatter Plot and Cluster Analysis
Figure 3 shows a scatter plot of SiO
2
and CaO contents,
and from the fgure it is clear that most of the samples have
similar concentrations of major elements, except for samples
QH6, QH8 and QH26. Figure 4 shows a scatter plot of CaO
and MgO, the fgure showing that most of the pottery shards
have a very similar concentration of CaO and MgO content.
Table 1.
Major elements of pottery shards from Dahan-e Ghulaman.
Sample
Major elements (%)
Na
2
OMgOA1
2
O
3
SiO
2
P
2
O
5
SO
3
K
2
OCaOTiO
2
MnOFe
2
O
3
SrO
QH11.73.815.364.51.20.6701.25.60.380.6505.40.079
QH21.14.615.160.42.10.5801.75.80.490.0867.90.073
QH30.984.413.263.51.60.3701.65.90.500.0787.80.068
QH61.44.214.361.71.0
–
1.17.30.530.0878.20.052
QH8
–
4.313.462.01.2
–
1.57.20.580.0949.50.080
QH17
–
4.113.962.42.2
–
1.65.90.630.0758.80.075
QH181.24.714.260.41.7
–
1.55.60.600.0989.80.061
QH192.44.912.966.60.84
–
1.44.50.370.0585.80.071
QH203.14.610.865.41.90.0341.74.80.540.0606.70.13
QH231.44.615.962.10.77
–
1.54.70.500.0778.30.072
QH261.76.613.860.10.930.0261.37.70.460.0777.20.058
QH292.86.314.357.21.70.5201.55.50.580.0919.30.073
QH322.85.317.657.31.30.4901.54.60.500.0798.30.081
QH342.35.115.754.95.50.6201.85.60.470.0917.80.095
QH382.26.315.556.81.4
–
1.65.70.560.1209.30.68
Figure 3.
Scatter plot of SiO2 versus CaO
percentage of pottery shards from Dahan-e
Ghulaman.
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Hossein Sarhaddi-Dadian, Hossein Moradi, Zuliskandar Ramli, Vahid Purzarghan: X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of the Pottery Shards from Dahan-e Ghulaman,
the Achaemenid Site in Sistan, East of Iran
40
Based on these two fgures, it can be suggested that most
of the pottery shards used the same raw materials and the
pottery was locally made.
Hierarchical agglomerative clustering of the SiO
2
and
CaO percentage shows that there are two groups: group A,
which is considered to be locally produced and has a
signifcant value below 10, and group B, which is considered
to be imported local shards or shards which have certain
anomalies (see Figure 5).
Figure 6 shows a hierarchical agglomerative clustering
of CaO and MgO percentage, which shows there are two
component groups. Group A is considered to be locally
produced pottery shards with a signifcant value below 15;
group B can be considered imported pottery shards which
have higher calcium or magnesium.
Figure 4.
Scatter plot of CaO versus MgO
percentage of pottery shards from Dahan-e
Ghulaman.
5. Conclusion
The compositional analysis showed that most of the pottery
shards taken from the archaeological site in Dahan-e
Ghulaman are locally made; based on the assumption of
the Provenance Postulate and the Criterion of Abundance.
A previous analysis of pottery shards from Sistan showed
that since the prehistoric period, there was trade activity
in Sistan, and that the activity continued until the Islamic
Period. The result of the analysis also showed that the local
community from prehistory to the historical period in Sistan
was very skilful and knowledgeable in pottery making (see
Moradi
et al.
2013; Sarhaddi-Dadian
et al.
2015b). There are
possibilities that fve of the samples were imported or are
just anomalies; these samples, QH6, QH8, QH26, QH29 and
Figure 5.
Hierarchical agglomerative clustering of the SiO2 and CaO
percentage of the pottery shards from Dahan-e Ghulaman.
Figure 6.
Hierarchical agglomerative clustering of the CaO and MgO
percentage of the pottery shards from Dahan-e Ghulaman.
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IANSA 2017 ● VIII/1 ● 35–41
Hossein Sarhaddi-Dadian, Hossein Moradi, Zuliskandar Ramli, Vahid Purzarghan: X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis of the Pottery Shards from Dahan-e Ghulaman,
the Achaemenid Site in Sistan, East of Iran
41
QH38, have higher calcium and magnesium concentrations.
It can be suggested that the imported pottery probably came
from outside of the Sistan region. The higher content of P
2
O
5
in the Dahan-e Ghulaman pottery shards shows that some of
the pottery was used as food containers.
Acknowledgements
We express our gratitude to Seyyed Mansour Seyyed
Sajjadi, Archaeological Director of International expedition
of Shahre Sokhte and Dahan-e Ghulaman for giving us the
potsherd sample for analysis. Our especial thanks go to
Nooshin Jahantighi for editing the text of the paper.
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