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VI/2/2015
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
Thematic Review
Exotic Spices in Flux: Archaeobotanical Material from Medieval
and Early Modern Sites of the Czech Lands (Czech Republic)
Michal Preusz
a*
, Kateřina Kodýdková
a
, Petr Kočár
b
, Zdeněk Vaněček
c
a
University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, Laboratory of Archaeobotany and Palaeoecology, Branišovská 31a, 370 05 České Budějovice,
Czech Republic
b
Institute of Archaeology of the Czech Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Letenská 123, 118 00, Prague, Czech Republic
c
Palacký University Olomouc, Faculty of Science, Department of Analytical Chemistry, 17. listopadu 12, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
1. Introduction
The remains of Medieval and Early Modern life can be seen
at every step in the Czech countryside, there being a large
number of Romanesque and Gothic castles, monasteries,
towns and villages, which have later been rebuilt in the spirit
of modernizing styles. Under these many reconstructions
we can capture yet another dimension, from which we can
gain archaeological, archaeobotanical and archaeozoological
data. These can signifcantly enhance our “on-the-surface”
awareness and in a unique way extend our knowledge about
the everyday life, trade, diet and other activities of historical
societies. From this perspective, the fndings of thousands of
plant macro-residues can indicate the specifc relationships
between plants and historical actors in the past, as well as
represent archives of information about the paleoecology of
surveyed sites.
Even in these archives it is often possible to fnd unusual
fndings: “curiosities”. Among the broad spectrum of
fndings of plant macro-remains that are of exotic origin,
it can be determined that Czech people only had access to
them via trans-regional trade. These specifc taxa included
spices that had been imported into the central European
environment from Asia, and later on some from the New
World (Figure 1). Europeans were fascinated not only by
their exoticism but also their specifcity, other-worldly taste
and medicinal properties. Archaeobotanical fnds of spices
are an indication of the level of trade in exotic goods, its
assimilation into different social environments and the
level of luxury that was linked to exotic spices. Also, easily
overlooked, local fndings suddenly overlap into a global
Volume VI ● Issue 2/2015 ● Pages 223–236
*Corresponding author. E-mail: preusz.michal@gmail.com
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 23
rd
April 2015
Accepted: 14
th
December 2015
Key words:
exotic spices
luxury food
imports
New World
Asia
Europe
trade routes
consumer society
archaeobotany
macro-remains
ABSTRACT
According to the core-periphery model of economic geography, the Medieval and Early Modern Czech
lands can be called a semi-periphery. They are located in a hilly part of central Europe, in the shadows
of the world’s naval powers. Over the centuries this location has greatly infuenced their domestic
consumer society, in many ways lacking in self-suffciency and often having to rely on the import
of foreign and exotic goods through a global sales network; amongst these rare goods were different
kinds of spices. These imported species, specifcally assimilated, became not only an important part
of the diet, but also a symbol of luxury. This paper presents the current state of research into exotic
spices that have been discovered in archaeological contexts in today’s Czech Republic, and illustrates
their importance for the interpretation of trade in exotic goods and the historical socio-cultural level
of local consumers.
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Michal Preusz, Kateřina Kodýdková, Petr Kočár, Zdeněk Vaněček: Exotic Spices in Flux: Archaeobotanical Material from Medieval and Early Modern Sites
of the Czech Lands (Czech Republic)
224
dimension, showing the mechanisms in which the consumers
of central European society operated (Orser 2008).
2. Materials and methods
The data used in this article come from published Czech
archaeobotanical research and also from unpublished data
belonging to the authors of this article. Though in the articles
the researched methods were not always discussed, most of
the materials were processed by wet sieving with minimum
sizes of mesh from 0.25 to 0.4 mm. Only one case of dry
sieving was mentioned: being used to process dry material
from the vault infll from Vladislav’s Hall in Prague (Table 1).
Findings of spices clearly dominate in sediments from
cesspits, followed by other wet contexts such as wells, water
trenches and wet waste layers. Other fndings come from
dry contexts such as vault inflls. In the series of published
results, the archaeological context was not always clearly
described, making it impossible to interpret the current
situation (Figure 2).
Archaeobotanical analyses answer many environmental
and also archaeological questions. They bring insights to
the reconstruction of landscapes in specifc time periods and
show changes in vegetational cover; for the archaeologist,
they can reconstruct human impact and show the structure
of settlement areas. Macro-remains also provide information
about the origin and distribution of plant species, as well
1
2
1
11
1
1
1
7
Feature
well
cultural layer
waste layer
cesspit
vault back
fi
ll
wooden gallery
water trench
Non de
fi
ned
Figure 1.
Trade ship as a symbol of the
import of exotic plants to Europe on the
cover of an early modern herbarium (Castore
Durante, Herbario Nuovo, Roma 1567).
Figure 2.
Findings of macro-remains of
spices according to archaeological situations
(M. Preusz).
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Michal Preusz, Kateřina Kodýdková, Petr Kočár, Zdeněk Vaněček: Exotic Spices in Flux: Archaeobotanical Material from Medieval and Early Modern Sites
of the Czech Lands (Czech Republic)
225
Table 1.
Summary of archaeobotanical fnds of exotic spices in the Czech Republic: HM1 (High Medieval 1=13
th
century); HM 2 (High Medieval 2=14
th
–15
th
century);
EM1 (Early Modern=16
th
century); EM2 (Early Modern 2=17
th
–18
th
century).
TownLocalityFeatureDatingMethod
State of preservation
Capsicum annuum
Elettaria cardamonum
Myristica fragrans
Pimenta dioica
Piper nigrum
Refference
Litovel
Revoluční street
layer 14, 21, 22
HM1
wetsievingwaterloggedX
Kočár, P. unpublished
Praha
Republiky square, barracks
of Jiří z Poděbrad
HM1
wetsievingwaterloggedX
Kočár, P. unpublished
Berounwaste layer
HM2
wetsieving?X
Čulíková, V. (1994)
Olomouc
Dolní náměstí square
cultural layer
HM2fotation
dry sedimentX
Vaněček Z. unpublished
Opava
Drůbeží trh square
cesspit
HM2
wetsievingwaterloggedX
Čulíková, V. (2011 )
Praha
Křižovnická street, Klementinum
cesspit
HM2
wetsievingwaterloggedX
Kočár, P. (unpublished)
Praha
Malostranské square nr. 260/III
cesspit
HM/EM
wetsievingwaterloggedX
Kočár, P., Kočárová, R. (2009)
PrahaMelantrichova streetwell
HM/EM
wetsievingwaterloggedXX
Kočár, P.
et al.
(2007)
Litovel
Husova street
cesspitEM1wetsievingwaterloggedX
Šlézar
et al.
(2008)
Praha
Prague castle, Vladislav’s Hallvault backfll
EM1drysievingdry sedimentX
Kosňovská J. (2011) Master thesis
Praha
Hradčany, Archbishop’s Palace
wooden galleryEM1wetsievingwaterloggedX
Čulíková, V. (2007)
Praha
Karmelitská street nr. 387, 458
cesspitEM1wetsievingwaterloggedX
Kočár, P.
et al.
(2007)
Praha
Liliová street nr. 248
cesspitEM1wetsievingwaterloggedX
Kočárová, P.
et al.
(2008)
Praha
Národní street – “Copa”
cesspitEM1
wetsieving/ fotation
waterloggedX
Kočár, P. unpublished
Uherský Brod
castlewater trenchEM1??X
Opravil, E. (1974)
Brno
Monastery of Minorites nr. 87–88 EM1/EM2
wetsievingwaterloggedX
Kočár et al. (2014)
Praha
Thunovská street nr.192/III
cesspit
EM1/EM2
wetsievingwaterloggedXXX
Čulíková, V. (2014)
Praha
Truhlářská street nr.16/1147EM1/EM2
wetsievingwaterloggedX
Kočár, P. unpublished
Kašperské Hory
main squarecesspitEM2wetsievingwaterloggedX
Kočár, P. unpublished
PlzeňBedřicha Smetany street
EM2wetsievingwaterloggedX
Kočár, P. unpublished
Praha
Dlouhá street nr. 721/I
cesspitEM2wetsievingwaterloggedXX
Kočár, P. unpublished
Praha
Republiky square, barracks
of Jiří z Poděbrad
EM2wetsievingwaterloggedX
Kočár, P. unpublished
Praha
Národní street – “Copa”
cesspitEM2wetsievingwaterloggedX
Kočár, P. unpublished
Uherský BrodKulturní dům
EM2wetsieving?X
Opravil, E. (2002)
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of the Czech Lands (Czech Republic)
226
as changes in the assortment of cultivated plants in past
cultures. And lastly, but not least, they provide information
regarding human diet and imported species.
During macro-remains analyses, mostly the seeds of
fowering plants are separated, but there may also be fruits,
buds, pieces of leaves and conifer needles, twigs, wood and
other parts of plants. With the addition of micro-remains
analyses (pollen, phytolits), together with the archaeological
results, they provide a more complete site interpretation.
In the case of spices, we must start with two assumptions.
First of all, although many seeds/fruits are used as spices,
they are often turned into different forms (ground, shredded,
etc.
); secondly, even some leaves and other soft parts of
plants are used for the same purpose. These pulverized parts
of plants do not preserve well in any kind of sediment. On
the other hand, fnds of whole seeds of species from the
Mediterranean region, or of other origins, can support the
idea of the cultivation of many of these species within the
region of the Czech lands, as this corresponds with written
sources (
i.e.
Mattioli 2005).
3. The state of contemporary research of spices
The presence and range of varieties of spices in the Middle
Ages and Modern times used to be studied purely from
written records. One of the oldest available sources is Claret’s
lexicon, containing old Czech-Latin lists of spices that were
used in the latter half of the 14
th
century (Flajšhans 1926;
1928). During the 15
th
century, new medicine tracts and
herbariums became available. Of the greatest signifcance
for the Czech lands is the herbarium written by Mattioli
from 1596 (Mattioli 2005) and the medical tract “Lékařská
pojednání” by Křištan from Prachatice (Tichá 1975). With
respect to the consumption of spices, there also belong some
Medieval and early Modern cookbooks and recipes (Zíbrt
2011). Less available sources are the receipts and expenses
for spices that used to be recorded by the administrators of
aristocratic courts (Hrdlička 2000). Unfortunately, there is
no such rich basis of written records for the common urban
environment: only scarce lists of merchandise, or the records
of prices of spices on city markets, are available (Winter
1892). Other sporadic evidence of spices comes from
travelogues. Compared to written sources, even less attention
has been paid to other kinds of records – iconographies,
artefacts and ecofacts.
The frst attempts at interpreting plant fossils found during
archaeological excavations in Czech lands took place in the
second half of the 19
th
century. These are associated with
the names Lüssner (1859, 1865) Jeitteles (1872) and later
with Rzehak (1904), Fietz (1941) and Dohnal (1958). Actual
systematic archaeobotanical analyses started simultaneously
with the development of medieval archaeology (Smetánka,
Žegklitz 1990). In 1961, Emanuel Opravil established
archaeobotany as a scientifc discipline in the Czech
Republic. Since that time he has published over 300 articles
concerning plant macro-remains analyses, many of them
with identifed spice species. In the 1970s, Věra Čulíková
processed a huge amount of material from the Medieval
town of Most. In the 1990s, Petr Kočár was engaged in
archaeobotany and, shortly after 2000, The Laboratory of
Archaeobotany and Paleoecology was founded with a number
of young archaeobotanists, some of whom are specialized in
the Middle Ages and Modern times (Figure 3). Although the
base “corps” of archaeobotanists is gradually growing, there
is still no complete database of all their research.
4. The origin of spices
The spices and aromatic plants determined from
archaeobotanical fnds from the Czech Republic have
different origins (
e.g.
Asia, Europe, America). In this study,
only species that used to be imported to the Czech lands
as luxury goods are presented in detail: the Asian spices
cardamom (
Elettaria cardamomum
), nutmeg (
Myristica
fragrans
), black pepper (
Piper nigrum
) and the spices pepper
(
Capsicum annuum
); and allspice (
Pimenta dioica
) from the
New World.
5. Luxurious spices from Old Asian World
The package of Asian spices can be divided into two
parts. The frst includes species that were imported to the
Mediterranean and central Europe and assimilated – lovage
(
Levisticum offcinale
) and basil (
Ocimum basilicum
). The
second part is represented by species that grow solely in
tropical regions and whose distribution was dependent
on their import. This group includes black pepper (
Piper
nigrum
), nutmeg (
Myristica fragrans
) and cardamom
(
Elettaria cardamomum
).
5.1 Black pepper (
Piper nigrum
)
Piper nigrum
is a perennial fowering plant with alternate,
entire leaves up to 10 cm long and 6 cm across. On supporting
trees it can grow up to 4 m high.
Black pepper is native to
southwest India. The fruits of
Piper nigrum
are drupes, so-
called peppercorns. When they are fully matured they are
dark red. Different colours of peppercorns are derived from
Figure 3.
Timeline showing the names of archaeobotanists (Lape –
Alexandra Bernardová, Tereza Šálková, Jitka Kosňovská, Kateřina
Kodýdková, Michaela Divišová, and Zdeněk Vaněček).
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of the Czech Lands (Czech Republic)
227
the time of their harvest and subsequent processing. Black
pepper comes from unripe drupes that were fermented and
dried in the sun. Green pepper is from unripe and dried drupes,
while white pepper is from fully ripe and dried drupes. Red
peppers are drupes harvested fully ripe and immediately
pickled in brine. Other types or colours of pepper usually
refer to another plant species (Vaughan, Geissler 2009, 146).
The fall of the Roman Empire led to the decay and
restructuring of established business networks between
Europe and India, sensitive as they were to socio-political
change. Quite early on, Medieval society began to covet the
resumption of supplies of spices as it had been in Roman times.
The continual return to the traditional ancient knowledge of
pepper in Greek and Roman culture serves as evidence of
this, meaning not only the acceptance of its knowledge, but
also some of its errors. Roman pharmacologist Dioscorides
(40–90 AD) incorrectly merged long pepper and black
pepper as one species. This error was then subsequently
reproduced many times – by Pliny in the 1
st
century, Galenus
in the 2
nd
century, Isidor of Seville (560–636 AD) in the 7
th
century, Avicenna (930–1037 AD) in the 10
th
century and so
on (Toussaint-Samat 2008).
From the 12
th
century onwards, the possibility for long
cruises in the Mediterranean re-opened and the spice trade
was soon taken over by the Venetians. In the 14
th
century they
imported pepper, wax, sandalwood and ginger from India to
the east, and in return they exported metal and other fnished
products. In the frst half of the 15
th
century Venetians had
3300 Argosies (large merchant ships). This huge commercial
power annually brought from Alexandria 600 tons of pepper
along with other exotic commodities. Due to these vast
amounts, there appeared many city offcials who specialized
exclusively in pepper (Ackroyd 2010).
The rise of social groups of specialists mirrored the social
and cultural tensions in the city of Venice’s economic centre,
which quickly realized that fashion and the introduction of
new products represented the most important concepts in
its trade. Pepper was one of the items imported from great
distances, signifying high risks, but also high profts from its
eventual sale.
The spice trade came to be dominated by rational
calculation and abstract relationships of credit and exchange,
which began to create a new kind of society: a society of
goods for sale and consumers to buy them. It also brought
Venice to the setting up of banks and the formation of national
debt. Other trading groups in other states began to react to
the proftable business being conducted in Venice – and soon
specialists were appearing everywhere: “the Pepperers” in
Britain, “Pfeffersacke” in German-speaking countries, and
“Poivrier” in France. The expansion of pepper during the 13
th
and 14
th
century in Europe is confrmed by the fndings of
pepper from the Hanseatic towns (Karg 2007, 27, Table 5).
During the 15
th
century the European trade with black pepper
was slowed down by the expansion of Ottoman Empire, which
initially blocked land routes to the Middle East, and then
conquered Egypt and occupied the northern coast of Africa.
The Mediterranean region became a battleground between
Christians and Muslims. It was the beginning of the search
for alternative routes. The Portuguese had circumnavigated
Africa and began to import pepper on their merchant “nao”,
or “nau”, ships (carracks). The so-called “Pepper wrecks” that
are being discovered on the route from Lisbon to Calicut (the
“City of Spices” now known as Kozhikode) (Figure 4) are a
unique testament to the dogged pursuit of modern retailers to
regain the lost glory of the lucrative spice trade (Alves 2011;
Castro-Fonseca-Wells 2010). The Indian Ocean once again
became a theatre of confict for the powerful European
states that sought to dominate the market. For this purpose
many “East Indian” companies were established, such as the
Dutch India Company (VOC) or the East India Company
(EIC) (Flatman-Staniforth 2006, 183–186). Findings of
wrecks of merchant ships are a testimony to a nation’s global
social, economic, political, as well as its military, infuence.
Moreover, one unexpected result of the search for new sea
Figure 4.
Reconstruction of the wreck of
a portuguese nao (nau) ship or carrack, used
to transport pepper, a so-called “Pepper
wreck” (according to Castro-Fonseca-Wells
2010, 29, Figure 7).
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of the Czech Lands (Czech Republic)
228
Figure 5.
Map of archaeobotanical fndings
of Piper nigrum in the Czech Republic and
historical core of Prague: 1. Republiky sq.,
barrack of Jiří z Poděbrad; 2. Křižovnická
st., Klementinum; 3. Malostranské sq., no.
260/III; 4. Melantrichova st.; 5. Hradčany,
Archbishop’s Palace; 6. Karmelitská st., no.
387, 458; 7. Liliová st., no. 248; 8. Národní
st. “Copa”; 9. Thunovská st., no. 192/III;
10. Truhlářská st., no. 16/1147; 11. Dlouhá
st., no. 721/I; 12. Republiky sq., barrack
of Jiří z Poděbrad; 13. Národní st. “Copa”
(M. Preusz).
Figure 6.
Spices imported from Asia:
a) black pepper (
Piper nigrum
); b) nutmeg
(
Myristica fragrans
; Mattioli, 2005).
routes to India was the discovery of the New World, which
later reduced the socio-political importance of the traditional
spice routes.
Evidence of black pepper in the Czech lands has come from
19 localities. The oldest fnds are from the 13
th
century from
Litovel and Prague (Figure 5), other Medieval fnds coming
from Olomouc and Opava. Early Modern fnds of pepper
are from Prague, Uherský Brod and Plzeň (Figure 6a). It is
usually hard to distinguish between black and white peppers
from archaeological situations. The skin of drupes may
have become removed due to the conditions in the sediment
and thus lead to an incorrect determination as being black
pepper. But there are also fnds of complete drupes – white
pepper: for example, in Olomouc (Vaněček unpubl.), Opava
(Čulíková 2011), and Prague (Čulíková 2014).
5.2 Nutmeg (
Myristica fragrans
)
Myristica fragrans
is an evergreen tree indigenous to the
Moluccas of Indonesia. This dioecious tree is usually
5–13 m tall and has alternately-arranged, dark-green leaves.
The fowers are bell-shaped and pale yellow. Female trees
produce pear-shaped fruit yellow in colour. The seed is
brown, about 2–3 cm long and 2 cm wide, and is covered
by a red aril (seed pod). The seeds are the source of nutmeg,
and the dried and ground aril provides the spice called mace
(Vaughan, Geissler 2009, 148).
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Michal Preusz, Kateřina Kodýdková, Petr Kočár, Zdeněk Vaněček: Exotic Spices in Flux: Archaeobotanical Material from Medieval and Early Modern Sites
of the Czech Lands (Czech Republic)
229
Nutmeg was introduced to Europe by Arabian merchants.
References from the Mediterranean region date back to the
6
th
century (Jirásek 1958). During the Middle Ages, trade
with nutmeg and many other spices and goods was controlled
by the Venetians (Kybal, Kaplická 1988). The price for this
spice was extremely high; not even in Modern times has
the price been lower. The Molucca Islands were discovered
by the Portuguese in 1514 (Davidson 2002) and in 1602 its
monopoly was taken over by the Dutch Indian Company,
so prices for nutmeg remained high. The monopoly was
crushed when the French gained seedlings and started their
own cultivation of nutmeg in other areas (Polívka 1908). The
English had a big hand in expanding these areas in the 18
th
and 19
th
centuries (Davidson 2002).
Nutmeg was transported to the Czech lands from Italy,
across Germany and Austria (Kybal, Kaplická 1988). In
Mattioli’s herbarium two types of nutmeg are distinguished:
the frst called “male”, was oblong in shape, whereas the other
was round and considered more effective as a spice. Nutmeg
was used in the kitchen as a spice and also in medicine as
a drug to heal head and stomach ache (Mattioli 2005, 222–
224) (Figure 6b). It was usually ground and mixed with red
wine. Nutmeg was also often misused for its intoxicating
effects (Beneš
et al.
1998).
Archaeological fndings of nutmeg are quite rare
(Figure 7). The frst and oldest fnd of nutmeg in the Czech
lands is from Beroun and dates back to the 14
th
century
(Čulíková 1994). The second fnd is from the vault backfll
from Vladislav’s hall in Prague Castle (Kosňovská 2011)
and is dated to the 16
th
century. Other fnds from Europe are
from Slovakia (Bratislava) (Hajnalová 1985), from Scotland
(Paisley Abbey) (Dickson 1996), and Poland (Latałowa
et al.
1998).
5.3 Cardamom (
Elettaria cardamomum
)
Elettaria cardamomum
is an up-to-5-metres-tall perennial
herb from the Zingiberaceae family. It is native to the
monsoon forests of South India and Sri Lanka. The fruits are
capsules with several dark seeds. They are usually harvested
before they are fully ripe. To preserve the spice essence,
the whole capsules are cut and then slowly dried (Vaughan,
Geissler 2009; 148). As the Piper nigrum was known as
the “King of Spices”, cardamom is often referred to as the
“Queen of Spices” for its pleasant mild aroma and unique
taste (Prabhakaran Nair 2011). In India, cardamom was an
important part of the economy and also a part of the Indian
Ayurvedic medicinal tradition and cuisine (Kybal, Kaplická
1988).
The frst written records of the transport of cardamom to
Greece can be found in the work of Theophrastus which date
back to the 4
th
century BC. Both Greeks and Romans used
cardamom as the main essence for perfumes: not only for
its unique aroma, but also for its aphrodisiac effect. By 1000
AD, cardamom was being transported mostly by Arabian
merchants to other Mediterranean countries and further into
Europe. Even the Vikings were aware of cardamom after
their voyages to Constantinople around 1000 AD (Kybal,
Kaplická 1988).
In the Czech lands, cardamom has been defnitely known
since Medieval times. It was said that cardamom was grown
in Calicut, Malabar and Java (Kybal, Kaplická 1988).
Mattioli claims that it was transported to Europe through
Figure 7.
Map of archaeobotanical fndings
of Myristica fragrans in the Czech Republic
and historical centre of Prague: 1. Prague
Castle, Vladislav’s hall (M. Preusz).
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Michal Preusz, Kateřina Kodýdková, Petr Kočár, Zdeněk Vaněček: Exotic Spices in Flux: Archaeobotanical Material from Medieval and Early Modern Sites
of the Czech Lands (Czech Republic)
230
Figure 8
. Map of archaeobotanical fndings
of Elettaria cardamomum in the Czech
Republic and the historical centre of Prague:
1. Thunovská st., no. 192/III (M. Preusz).
Figure 9.
Imported spices from Asia: True Cardamom (
Elettaria
cardamomum
; Mattioli 2005).
Alexandria and in three different variants – small, medium
and large (Figure 9). All of them were called cardamom,
but each corresponds to a different plant species. According
to Mattioli, the largest type of cardamom was also called
Grana Paradisi in Czech lands, due to its unique taste and
smell (Mattioli 2005, 413–416). The name actually refers to
Aframomum melegueta,
which was used as a substitute for
cardamom (Vaughan, Geissler 2009; 148,150)
As cardamom was a valued spice, archaeobotanical fnds
from Europe are mostly connected with archaeological
situations that indicate places of higher social status. The
fnds in Germany vary from the 12
th
century to Modern times
(
e.g.
Alsleben 1991; Hellwig 1997; Wolf 1997; Paetzold
1998; Wiethold 1999). Finds from Poland are declared as
being from Gdansk (Badura 2011). Seeds found in two
latrines dated to the 15
th
– 17
th
century and located in the
wealthier district of the town can also be connected to people
from the upper classes.
The frst and only fnd of six seeds of cardamom in the Czech
Lands comes from Prague (Figure 8). A macro-remains analysis
was conducted on very rich sediments from a cesspit dated to
the turn of the 17
th
to 18
th
century (Čulíková 2014). The cesspit
belonged to a college of the Theanines order. It contained
faeces and waste from the dispensary of the monastery. With
over 210 species and 110 000 diaspores, including
Elettaria
cardamomum, Piper nigrum, Capsicum annuum, Nicotiana
tabacum
and many others, it represents the richest set of fnds
from Early Modern times within the whole of Europe.
6. Luxurious spices from the New World
The extent of world trade in spices grew to global proportions
in the late 15
th
century. The voyage of Christopher Columbus
across the Atlantic to the shores of the New World opened
up new trade routes for commodities, among which exotic
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Michal Preusz, Kateřina Kodýdková, Petr Kočár, Zdeněk Vaněček: Exotic Spices in Flux: Archaeobotanical Material from Medieval and Early Modern Sites
of the Czech Lands (Czech Republic)
231
plant species formed an important part. These neophytes
were imported to the Czech lands far more slowly than to the
coastal countries of Europe. Finds of American species dated
to the 16
th
century are thus among the rarities – in central
Europe they became a symbol of the new Renaissance way
of life.
6.1 Allspice (Pimenta dioica)
Pimenta dioica
, known as allspice, is native to Central
America. It occurs in the Antilles, Cuba and southern Mexico,
and probably in Haiti and Costa Rica (Adams 1972). This
small tree is 6–12 m high; the trunk is smooth and the leaves
are large, dark green, pointed and leathery. The fowers are
white and arranged in pyramidal cymes. Fruits are berry-like
drupes with two seeds. They are harvested unripe, since they
lose aroma when mature (Vaughan, Geissler 2009; 150).
Allspice was known and used by the Aztecs, who used it
for spicing their chocolate (Kybal, Kaplická 1988). It was
introduced to Europe shortly after the discovery of the
America, but it is unknown from renaissance herbariums.
The frst records come from the beginning of the 17
th
century
(Polívka 1908). The biggest importers were Spaniards and,
according to written sources, allspices became rather popular
in European cuisines (Greig 1996). It was used to spice and
also preserve meat, in sauces and marinades, and it also
had its application in cosmetics. The name Allspice comes
from the idea that the aroma and favour resembles clove,
cinnamon, and nutmeg, and some authors even say also
pepper (Kybal, Kaplická 1988).
In the Czech lands there are two fnds of allspice, both
in the capital city Prague (Figure 10). Two seeds were
discovered in a well in Melantrichova street, in which the
sediment was dated to between the 15
th
century and 1615
(Kočár
et al.
2007); the other fnd comes from a cesspit
in Dlouhá street and it was dated to the 17
th
/18
th
century.
These fnds are quite unique, since there are only two other
published fnds of allspice, both dated to the 18
th
century.
One is from London (Giorgi 1997), and the other is from
Gdansk (Badura 2003).
6.2 Pepper (Capsicum annum)
Capsicum annuum
is, in suitable conditions, a perennial plant
of the Solanaceae family. It has been cultivated in Central
America since ancient times. Peppers were introduced to
Europe shortly after the discovery of the New World and
were imported from Haiti (Kybal, Kaplická 1988, 78).
Fields of
Capsicum annuum
are mentioned in Moravia in
1583 (Kavina 1951, 107) and the French botanist Carolus
Clusius claimed that he had seen extensive planting of this
spice in felds around the city of Brno in 1585. In the 16
th
century, different names were used in the Czech lands, all
of them expressing a touch of exoticism: “Pepř indiánský”
(Indian pepper), or “Pepř turecký” (Turkish pepper)
(Figure 11). Peppers were grown for kitchen use and also as
ornamental plants. It used to be grown in tubes so it could
be moved indoors in case of cold weather. They were eaten
fresh or dried, according to the Spanish custom. In medicine
they were used against dropsy (Mattioli 2005, 406 – 407).
The spread of peppers in the central European environment
is refected in the archaeobotanical fnds from Early Modern
archaeological contexts. So far, seeds of peppers have been
found at four urban localities (Figure 12). Finds of seeds
from Brno and one base of a pepper berry from Prague are
dated to the 16
th
century. Findings from the mining town of
Figure 10.
Map of archaeobotanical fndings
of Pimenta dioica in the Czech Republic and
historical centre of Prague: 1. Melantrichova
st.; 2. Dlouhá st., no. 721/I (M. Preusz).
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of the Czech Lands (Czech Republic)
232
Kašperské Hory are dated to the 17
th
–18
th
century, the same
as that of the largest collection of pepper seeds (over 400
seeds) from Uherský Brod.
7. Exotic spices and the central European consumer society
When interpreting information about archaeobotanical
fnds of exotic spices in the Czech Republic, our work
has been aimed at describing the origin of taxa, their
exploration by Europeans and subsequent transfer, or their
primary refections in herbariums. Only marginally have
we mentioned the Medieval and Early Modern society that
represented the fnal consumers of these rare commodities
brought to them from afar.
The defning factor to which we must pay attention is
the social context in which the archaeobotanical fnds were
recorded. It was exclusively the environment of higher social
groups, the environment of the royal court, nobility and of
the town – in which large groups of rich people were brought
together. This was also the same environment where these
people had the best possibilities to buy those exotic spices
from trading merchants. The urban environment played
an important role as an intermediary for trade with both
domestic and exotic species, and also as an environment
with a large consumer base.
For shopkeepers, the trade with spices was only one of
many sources of income (Figure 13). It is not known whether
or not there were any specialized dealers of spices in the
Czech lands, similar to that recorded from other European
countries. However, in the mid-14
th
century, the canon of the
Prague Chapter, Magister Claretus, had spices registered that
he had separated into two distinct groups (Flajšhans 1926,
1928). The frst, “De radicibus”, included pepper (perz),
ginger (zazwor), cloves (hrzebiczek), cinnamon (skorzicze),
licorice (lekoricze), anise (but), mace (muscatum kviet),
caraway (kmyn) and saffron (ssafran). In the second group,
“De frumento”, were included domestic species, such as
horseradish, hops, dill, and parsley. He clearly distinguished
the luxurious spices, mostly of exotic origin, from the
commonly available and inexpensive species. Only rich
burghers could afford these expensive spices, as is refected
in the map of the distribution of exotic species in the major
urban centres of Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia. By way of
contrast, from Medieval and Early Modern contexts from
Figure 11
. Imported peppers (
Capsicum annuum
) from the New World: a)
“Turkish pepper”; b) “Indian pepper” (Mattioli 2005).
Figure 12.
Map of archaeobotanical
fndings of
Capsicum annuum
in the Czech
Republic and historical centre of Prague:
1. Thunovská st. no. 192/III (M. Preusz).
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of the Czech Lands (Czech Republic)
233
the environment of smaller towns, mostly domestic species
are recorded, such as: chives (
Allium schoenoprasum
),
caraway (
Carum carvi
), common hop (
Humulus lupulus
),
common juniper (
Juniperus
communis
), feld mint (
Mentha
arvensis
), horse mint (
Mentha longifolia
), and lemon thyme
(
Thymus pulegioides
); or spices with their origin in the
Mediterranean region, such as: dill (
Anethum graveolens
),
celery (
Apium graveolens
), black mustard (
Brassica
nigra
), coriander (
Coriandrum sativum
), saffron (
Crocus
sativus
), fennel (
Foeniculum vulgare
), bay tree (
Laurus
nobilis
), lavender (
Lavandula angustifolia
), cress (
Lepidium
sativum
), marjoram (
Majorana hortensis
), lemon balm
(
Melissa offcinalis
), love-in-a-mist (
Nigella damascena/
sativa
), oregano (
Origanum vulgare
), parsley (
Petroselinum
crispum
), anise (
Pimpinella anisum
), rosemary (
Rosmarinus
offcinalis
), sage (
Salvia offcinalis
), summer savory
(
Satureja hortensis
), and thyme (
Thymus vulgaris
).
Other evidence of exotic spices comes from the aristocratic
environment. Aristocrats possessed fnancial resources
suffcient enough to acquire exotic materials as well as
having the best overview of current events, particularly in
connection with the news of the discovery of the New World
spreading through central Europe. In this environment,
exotic plants represented not only a symbol of luxury, but
also a symbol of social superiority, which refected a person’s
material and spiritual wealth. A good example is the portrait
of the Emperor Rudolf II of Habsburg as Vertumnus: it is
a symbol of the Renaissance monarch, a ruler over Nature;
an exotic red pepper is evident in the detail of his costume
(Figure 14).
In the Czech environment, the surroundings of Prague
Castle and forecastle are exceptionally well-studied, and here
can be found a large number of urban palaces of the nobility
and high clergy (
e.g.
Čulíková 1998; 2001a; 2001b; 2007). A
second example is from the research into the Royal Castle in
Uherský Brod – where black pepper was discovered from a
time before 1643 (Opravil 1974, 220–221).
Knowledge of spices in aristocratic environments is
mostly dependent on archival studies. Archives can enrich
our archaeobotanical knowledge in a unique way by giving
insights into the mechanisms that Czech nobility used in
the procurement and consumption of spices. Aristocratic
mansions received spices by way of shopping, or paying in
kind, and sometimes as a gift. Since spices were, together
with meat, salt and wine, the most expensive and also most
exotic commodity, they were usually bought abroad.
The main nation importing to central Europe in the 16
th
century was Italy. The goods were then transported into the
Danube region through a network of markets in various urban
centres, ranging from the Romano-Germanic region, through
Figure 13.
A merchant with spices in Nuremberg, Germany (Die Hausbücher der
Nürnberger Zwölfbrüderstiftungen: http://www.nuernberger-hausbuecher.de/).
Figure 14
. Pepper in a painting by Giuseppe Arcimboldo, Rudolph II of
Habsburg as Vertumnus, 1590 (Skokloster Castle, Sweden).
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Michal Preusz, Kateřina Kodýdková, Petr Kočár, Zdeněk Vaněček: Exotic Spices in Flux: Archaeobotanical Material from Medieval and Early Modern Sites
of the Czech Lands (Czech Republic)
234
Austria and on to Hungary. Among the most important trade
centres for Bohemia, Moravia and Silesia were the towns of
Nuremberg, Linz, Krems, Vienna and Freistadt (Bůžek 1991,
237). Less important was the domestic market, especially in
the provincial capitals of Prague (Janáček 1955, 74–110),
and Brno. However, these markets also played their role,
particularly in supplying urban residences; in these respects,
the archaeobotanical data obtained from this environment
correlate with historical reports.
The purchasing of supplies for manors, and similar large
households pertaining to nobles, was the responsibility of
selected civil clerks and purchasing offcers, who in turn
were under the supervision of the nobleman’s wife. In the
16
th
century, many clerks representing the most signifcant
aristocratic families, such as the Lobkovicz, the Rabstejn,
the Lords of Hradec, the Rosenbergs, the Sternbergs, the
Kolovrats and others, travelled to the Danube region to
purchase the required spices and other commodities. There
they were buying saffron, ginger, black pepper and cubeb
pepper, clove, cinnamon and mace from foreign countries.
Archived receipts also put other commodities under the label
“exotic goods” – raisins, Parmesan cheese, Nuremberg’s
ginger bread and such tropical fruit as oranges, limes, olives,
almonds and pistachios. In contrast, common spices fell
under the label (or on lists) of “kitchen equipment”. The
purchased spices were transported in large carriages and kept
in large storerooms. When the court travelled to their country
houses, they took the spices along with them, representing as
it did such a luxurious commodity. In less important, smaller
manors, the exotic spices were often replaced by domestic
species, such as horseradish, caraway, anise and juniper
(Hrdlička 2000).
According to records from the second half of the 16
th
century from the castle of the Lords of Hradec in Jindřichův
Hradec, spices used in the kitchen, on an annual basis, were:
10–25 kg of black pepper, 3–10 kg of saffron, 20 kg of clove,
25 kg of ginger and less than 10 kg of mace and cinnamon.
Despite these high annual amounts, the recommendations in
existence in kitchens were to use “spices moderately and only
as necessity requires” [original Czech: “
koření v mírnosti a
jakž potřeba káže”
](Hrdlička 2000)
.
Apart from markets, gardens were another source of
spices, though mostly of domestic species. Since the second
half of the 16
th
century, seedlings of exotic plants could be
bought. They usually have special cognomens (“additional
names”) that expressed their exotic origin, such as “Turkish”,
“Indian” and so on (Hrdlička 2000).
8. Conclusion
The current state of research of exotic spices suggests
strong historical commercial ties between central Europe
and overseas regions. Traditional ties to the Mediterranean
region, that reach deep into prehistory, were in Ancient and
Medieval times supplemented by imports from Asia. The
Indian Ocean, therefore, constituted the most important
socio-economic environment of the time.
Only after the discovery of the New World was there a
complete restructuring of European business interests as
new, previously unknown, species of spices were discovered
and quickly transported to the old continent, including
central Europe. Thus, at the beginning of the 16
th
century
we can begin to think in terms of a global spice market that
spanned the world. From this perspective, contemporary
archaeobotany is extending our current, mostly artifactual,
concept of historical archaeology through the study of
ecofacts that were among the range of commercially traded
goods and which played important roles during Europe’s
colonization of overseas areas by providing “exotic” supplies
for the European consumer society.
In this context, local archaeobotanical fnds of exotic
spices not only represent a unique testimony of the
development of global trade, but also the embracing of
luxury goods in the domestic environment. Unfortunately,
the current state of archaeobotanical knowledge is limited
by the state of archaeological research as practiced today.
Systematic attention is primarily devoted to the urban
environment, with predominance for commercial research.
Less attention is paid to the environment of villages and
castles. Archaeological research into castles are under the
administration of the National Heritage Institute (NHI), a
body which still holds the traditional concept of artifactual
archaeology without the use of modern environmental
methods. As a result, the archaeobotanical view is restricted
to the urban environment with only some exceptional detours
into other social environments.
The aim of this paper was to present different kinds of
exotic spices found from various archaeobotanical sets from
the Middle Ages and the Early Modern period, to characterize
their cultural and trade routes from overseas to central Europe,
and to show the transformation of their consumption in
different social environments. We have tried to summarize the
development of research into exotic spices, to trace the range
of species found in archaeological contexts, and for the frst
time to introduce all archaeobotanical fnds of valuable exotic
spices in the Czech lands. In the future there exists the open
possibility to compare current data with data from the deeper
past, or with data from the research of neighbouring countries,
where similar research is in progress (see Livarda 2011).
Acknowledgements
This article was supported by the OPVK project PAPAVER
– Centre for human and plant studies in Europe and
Northern Africa in the post-glacial period, registration no.
CZ.1.07/2.3.00/20.0289. This article was also supported by
the GAJU 116/2013/P project – Bioarcheologie jižních Čech
(2013–2015).
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of the Czech Lands (Czech Republic)
235
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