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63
VI/1/2015
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
Economy and Environment of a Medieval Town Refected in Wells Backfll
in Písek, Bakaláře Square (South Bohemia, Czech Republic)
Tereza Šálková
a, b, c*
,
Petra Houfková
a
, Jaroslav Jiřík
b
, Lenka Kovačiková
e
, Jan Novák
a
,
Martin Pták
b, c, d
, Tomáš Bešta
a
, Alžběta Čejková
a
, Eva Myšková
f
a
University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, Na Zlaté stoce 3, Laboratory of Archaeobotany and Palaeoecology, 370 05 České Budějovice,
Czech Republic
b
Prácheň Museum in Písek, Velké náměstí 114, 397 24 Písek, Czech Republic
c
University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Philosophy, Institute of Archaeology, Branišovská 31a, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
d
Charles University in Prague, Faculty of Arts, Institute of Prehistory and Early History, Celetná 20, 116 36 Praha 1, Czech Republic
e
University of West Bohemia, Faculty of Philosophy and Arts, Sedláčkova 15, 306 14 Plzeň, Czech Republic
f
University of South Bohemia, Faculty of Science, Department of Parasitology, Branišovská 31, 370 05 České Budějovice, Czech Republic
1. Introduction
This paper reports on the archaeological and bioarchaeological
data gained from the salvage excavation of two Medieval
wells in Písek, Bakaláře Square (South Bohemia, Czech
Republic) in 2008 (Figure 1). A large number of artefacts,
especially ceramics and wood, were recovered, and fragments
of glass, slag, and daub were also found in the wells. The
following bioarchaeological methods were applied: plant
macrofossil analysis, anthracology, xylotomy, palynology,
dendrochronology, archaeozoology, parasitology and diatom
analyses.
The frst written accounts of Písek date back to 1243 A.D.,
when King Wenceslas I reigned. The town was established in
a sparsely settled landscape, in connection with gold mining
activities in the River Otava (Kudrnáč 1971) and as a control
point for an important trading route (Fröhlich 2013). The
excavated wells are located near the Church of The Nativity
of the Virgin Mary which buttresses the southern edge of the
historic town centre (379 asl) and is elevated about 20 metres
above the river.
During pavement reconstruction of Bakaláře Square
which surrounds the church, archaeological salvage
excavations were perfomed in 2008–2009 (Figure 2). Among
the prominent fnds excavated there are the remains of a
tumuli and fve urn graves dated to the Bronze Age period,
and remnants of the Medieval and Postmedieval town. The
town walls, foundations of various buildings (including
the Latin school), fountain, remains of wooden tubing and
other features from the medieval and early modern periods
were unearthed (Houfková
et al.
2013). The focus of this
paper will be on the description and results from the two
medieval wells. Well 1 was completely excavated, whereas
well 2 was only excavated in its upper part, and the medieval
infll was then conserved for the future. They are currently
Volume VI ● Issue 1/2015 ● Pages 63–82
*Corresponding author. E-mail: terezasalkova@seznam.cz
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 28
th
November 2014
Accepted: 16
th
August 2015
Keywords:
Middle Ages
Central Europe
well backfll
bioarchaeology
artefact analyses
ABSTRACT
Two secondary backflled wells and remnants of a walled building, likely a school, were excavated
during a salvage excavation of a medieval part of Písek, Bakaláře Square (South Bohemia, Czech
Republic) in 2008. Well 1 was completely uncovered, whereas only the upper part of well 2 was
excavated; the wells being dated to the 14
th
century A.D.
Well 1 was examined by bioarchaeological methods (analyses of plant macroremains, anthracology
and xylotomy, pollen, dendrochronology, archaeozoology, palaeoparasitology, and diatoms), as well
as by traditional archaeological typology of central European artefacts (ceramics, wood, fragments of
glass, slag, and daub). It was possible to detect imported materials of various origins and to reconstruct
the environment of the town and town background, as well as the common practices for hunting,
growing, and waste management in medieval times.
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Tereza Šálková, Petra Houfková, Jaroslav Jiřík, Lenka Kovačiková, Jan Novák, Martin Pták, Tomáš Bešta, Alžběta Čejková, Eva Myšková: Economy and Environment
of a Medieval Town Refected in Wells Backfll in Písek, Bakaláře Square (South Bohemia, Czech Republic)
64
Figure 1:
Bakaláře Square, Písek. Location
of the site within Central Europe.
Figure 2:
Bakaláře Square, Písek. A – General plan of the archaeological excavation in season 2008–09 (drawn by Geo-cz, edited by T. Šálková).
B – Reconstruction of the demolished Latin School by builder Bečka in 1857 (Prácheň Museum Písek) in a map based on an Imperial imprint of the Stable
cadastre of 1837 (created by Geo-cz). C – Aerial photo (photo by V. Möglich). Wells 1 and 2 are marked in red.
A
CB
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Tereza Šálková, Petra Houfková, Jaroslav Jiřík, Lenka Kovačiková, Jan Novák, Martin Pták, Tomáš Bešta, Alžběta Čejková, Eva Myšková: Economy and Environment
of a Medieval Town Refected in Wells Backfll in Písek, Bakaláře Square (South Bohemia, Czech Republic)
65
located within the public space of the square, situated within
the vicinity of the former Renaissance Latin school. In
2008, a foundation trench at the western front of the school
was excavated. The ceramic assemblage (graphite storage
vessels, pot fragments,
etc.
) of the trench infll could be dated
to the 14
th
century. A double foundation wall of the school
was excavated in 1999 by Jiří Fröhlich and Eva Koppová
(Fröhlich, Koppová 2000), who revealed a more complicated
situation. According to Zikmund Winter, the Renaissance
school was built upon the former foundations of a building
that had been destroyed by fre. According to the earliest
written sources the presence of the school can be dated back
to at least the 15
th
century (Winter 1901, 117; for more see
Hoffmann 1992, 322). The location of the school being
next to the church cemetery is typical for the Middle Ages
(Hoffmann 1992, 324), so it can be assumed that the wells
were next to the school in medieval times. In those times, the
cleaning and heating of the school buildings were usually
performed by the pupils or teacher. Toilets covered by boards
were usually located by the school (Hoffmann 1992, 325).
Archaeological and bioarchaeological evidence from the
investigation of the infll of the wells can partly contribute
to solving the following important questions: For what a
purpose was the well used? Which kind of material was used
to fll the well and what activity and space interactions does
this material refect? The issue of primary and secondary
inflls of medieval wells and cesspits has been discussed
for more than 50 years (see
e.g.
Opravil 1964; Nechvátal,
Smetánka 1965; Nechvátal 1967; Široký 2000; Smith 2013).
Wells were very often secondarily used as cesspits because
of water contamination or changes in the water regime (
e.g.
for Písek, see Fröhlich 2002). Water contamination can be
detected by methods of environmental archaeology (
e.g.
Figueiral, Séjalon 2014). We consider the feature as a well
based on the presence of a dirt separator (Figure 4A, layer 3),
which was at the bottom of well 1 (Houfková
et al.
2013).
2. Water management in medieval Písek
Several excavations of medieval wells have been undertaken
in the medieval part of the town of Písek (Figure 3). The
well at house numbers 118 and 119 was situated near the
former royal castle of Písek (Figure 3, n.3). The depth of
this well was 17.2 metres, and the infll of the sludge area
at the bottom of the well contained ceramic shards and a
Figure 3:
Map of the town of Písek showing
medieval and postmedievals wells that have
been researched. The Bakaláře square site
is marked by a red arrow. Map by Soukup
1910, edited by J. Jiřík and M. Pták. 1: well 1,
Bakaláře; 2: well, Bakaláře; 3: well at house
numbers (Nos.) 118 and 119 situated near
the castle; 4: Jungmannova Street, No. 23;
5: Soukenická Street, No. 59; 6: Soukenická
Street, No. 63; 7: Nerudova Street, No. 66; 8:
former Dominican monastery; 9: southeast
part of the large square, in front of No. 175;
10: southeast corner of Alšovo Square, in
front of No. 50; 11: Havlíčkovo Square,
No. 94; 12: Hejdukova Street, No. 96 (by
Fröhlich, Koppová 1995, 3–19; Fröhlich
1997, 142; Adámek, Fröhlich 2002, 39;
Sedláček 1912, 384, 319; Jiřík, Pták 2010).
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Tereza Šálková, Petra Houfková, Jaroslav Jiřík, Lenka Kovačiková, Jan Novák, Martin Pták, Tomáš Bešta, Alžběta Čejková, Eva Myšková: Economy and Environment
of a Medieval Town Refected in Wells Backfll in Písek, Bakaláře Square (South Bohemia, Czech Republic)
66
pail dating back to the 15
th
century. The following layers of
the well were formed of a secondary infll dated to the Late
Medieval and Early Modern Age, mainly to the 16
th
and 17
th
centuries, when the well was used for waste disposal. The
anaerobic and moist environment of the well had enabled the
preservation of organic materials, such as various wooden
and leather artefacts, animal bones (sheep, cow, pig, dog, and
poultry), a pinecone, and a walnut fragment. Other medieval
(or early modern) wells were excavated at Jungmannova
Street, house number 23 (Figure 3, n. 4); Soukenická Street,
house numbers 59 (Figure 3, n. 5); and 63 (Figure 3, n.
6); and Nerudova Street, house number 66 (Figure 3, n.
7). However, bioarchaeological analyses of these inflls
have not been undertaken (Fröhlich, Koppová 1995, 3–19;
Fröhlich 1997, 142). Another well of an unclear age has been
reported within the area of a contemporary courthouse,
i.e.
an area that was originally close or even part of the former
Dominican monastery (Adámek, Fröhlich 2002, 39; Figure 3,
n. 8). According to August Sedláček, there were also two
municipal wells; the frst was located in the southeast part
of the large square (in front of house number 175; Figure 3,
n. 9) and the southeast corner of Alšovo Square (in front of
house number 50; (Figure 3, n. 10). The depth of the second
one was estimated at 14.45 metres and was still being used in
1830 (Sedláček 1912, 384, 319; Fröhlich, Koppová 1995, 7).
Another well has been detected attached to house
number 94 at Havlíčkovo Square. The total depth of 8–9
metres was estimated by Jindřich Kurz in 1996 (Jiřík, Pták
2010; Figure 3, n. 11). The last specimen was recorded in
Hejdukova Street, house number 96 (Fröhlich, Koppová
1995, 7), but this well has not been excavated and its dating
is unknown (Figure 3, n. 12).
3. Material and methods
The 7.70 m deep well 1 (Figure 4A) has been carved into the
gneiss (Figure 4B). At nearly 4 m thick, layer 1 consisted
of fragments of daub often carrying construction imprints
and large iron slags. Layer 2, which was black and muddy,
was deposited between 4 and 7.6 metres. In the bottom
(Figure 4C), layer 3 situated in the dirt separator was dark,
muddy and sandy. An important question is the composition
of layer 3 and its connection with the loss of the primary
function of the wells (
e.g.
polluted water). Well 2, layer 1
was excavated in its upper part, the character of this layer
being analogical to well 1, layer 1.
3.1 Field work, well infll sampling
The well 1 infll (Figure 4A) was stratigraphically excavated
by a pulley system with an electric drive. Ceramic
fragments, archaeozoological material, and fragments of
Figure 4:
Bakaláře Square, Písek, well 1.
A – cross-section of well 1 (plan by GEO-
cz). B – detail of tool traces. C – bottom of
the well with detail of the soil flter (photo
by B. Vácha).
A
C
B
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Tereza Šálková, Petra Houfková, Jaroslav Jiřík, Lenka Kovačiková, Jan Novák, Martin Pták, Tomáš Bešta, Alžběta Čejková, Eva Myšková: Economy and Environment
of a Medieval Town Refected in Wells Backfll in Písek, Bakaláře Square (South Bohemia, Czech Republic)
67
wooden artefacts were taken out during the excavation and
during sieving of all deposits. Sediments were separated
with a 1 cm mesh sieve, and one of the wooden fragments
was dendrodated. Samples of sediments were taken before
sieving for artefact separation and charcoal and wood
remains were separated by water fotation (0.2 mm mesh).
Sample 1 was taken out of layer 2 (volume 20 litres), and
sample 2 was taken out of layer 3 at the bottom of the well
(volume 8 litres). Flotation residue (1.8 mm mesh) was also
analysed, and small fragments of glass were found. The
sample of sediment from layer 3 was subsampled, chemically
processed, and analysed for pollen, parasites, and diatoms.
Well 2, layer 1 was excavated only in its upper part.
Artefacts and animal bones were analysed. Bioarchaeological
analyses were not applied.
3.2 Dating methods and artefact types
The well infll material could be dated using dendrochronology
and ceramic typology. Many fragments of wooden artefacts
were found in layer two. Two samples identifed as wood
of fr and spruce were used for dendrochronological dating;
tree-ring widths were measured at an accuracy of 0.01 mm
using a measuring device (TimeTable) and Past4 software
(Knibbe 2004) and the master chronologies of fr and spruce
for the Czech Republic (made by T. Kyncl).
During the excavation of both wells (upper part of well 2
and in all three layers of well 1), a number of pottery
fragments were obtained, which were used as one of the
pillars for dating the abandonment of the well. Some of the
fnds were collected during the excavation; the rest were
obtained during sieving (Figures 5, 6; Reichertová 1965;
Richter, Krajíc 2001; Procházka 1994; Nekuda, Reichertová
1968; Radoměrský, Richter 1976; Vařeka 1998; Orna
ed.
2011).
Many daub fragments with imprints of construction and
iron slag fragments were found in well 1, layer 1 (Figure 4)
and well 2, layer 1. One fragment of iron slag from well 1
was assessed with X-Ray Fluorescent Analysis. Wooden
fragments of joists, boards, planks, chips, twigs, and birch
and pine bark were found in well 1, layer 3. Many tiny
fragments of opalised glass were identifed in fotation
residues of well 1, layer 3.
3.3 Bioarchaeological methods
Bioarchaeological methods were applied to interpret the
sediment character. The following fnds were analysed:
plant macroremains, charcoal and wood, pollen, diatoms,
paleoparasites and bones. Botanical taxa were categorised
into groups based on the international
ArboDat Multi
database (Kreuz, Schäfer 2002; Pokorná
et al.
2011).
Plant macroremains were picked out and microscopically
(Olympus SZ51, Nicon SZM 1500) determined according
to Berggren (1981); Anderberg (1994); Cappers
et al.
(2006; 2009); and the comparative seed collection from the
Laboratory of Archaeobotany and Palaeoecology, Faculty
of Science, University of South Bohemia. Carbonised,
waterlogged, and mineralised remains were quantifed. The
plant species were ordered into general eco-groups according
to the specifc and environmental requirements of each
species (Hejný, Slavík
eds.
1988–1992; Slavík
ed.
1995–
2000; Slavík, Štěpánková
eds.
2004; Štěpánková
ed.
2010).
Percentage ratios of eco-groups based on the abundance of
particular subfossil and charred macroremains were plotted,
along with the percentage ratios of eco-groups of pollen
types using Tilia 1.5.12. software (Grimm 2011; Figure 7).
Charcoal and wood analysis was performed on 200
fragments from the largest fraction (>2 mm) per sample. The
charcoals were identifed using an episcopic interference
microscope (Nikon Eclipse 80i) with 200–500× magnifcation
and the comparative reference collection; additional standard
identifcation keys were also used (Schweingruber 1990;
Heiss 2000). Species abundance recorded by wood and
charcoal remains was plotted in histograms along with the
percentage ratios of arboreal pollen types using Tilia 1.5.12.
software (Grimm 2011; Figure 7).
A sediment sample for pollen analysis (1 g) was taken
from layer 3 at the bottom of well 1. Extraction of pollen
grains was done by chemical treatment according to Faegri
and Iversen (1989). Pollen grains were counted in light
microscopy (LM) at a magnifcation of 400–1000×, 481
determinations being recorded. Taxonomic identifcations
followed Punt
et al.
(1976–2009) and Beug (2004). Relative
abundance of pollen types was presented as percentages of
the total pollen sum (TPS). Non-pollen palynomorphs (NPPs)
were counted along with the pollen, and were calculated
as percentages of the TPS+NPP sum. Half of the sample
volume prepared for the pollen analysis (Faegri, Iversen
1989) was used for further parasitological investigation.
These results were compared with the results originating
from the other preparation method; the sample originating
from the same layer 3 in the bottom of well 1 was rehydrated
in a solution of 0.5% trisodium phosphate (Callen, Cameron
1960) and treated with two techniques: sedimentation –
AMS III concentration technique and fotation – sheather
sugar solution (500 g sucrose, 6.5 g phenol, 320 ml distilled
water). One sample from the bottom (layer 3) of well 1 was
analysed for diatoms.
Organic matter from sediment samples
was digested in hydrogen peroxide following standard
procedures (Battarbee 1986). Permanent slides were
prepared using Pleurax (Fott 1954) as a mounting medium.
The samples were studied with a LM (Olympus BX 51) at
a magnifcation of 1000×. Diatom analyses were processed
but with a negative result.
Bones from wells 1 and 2 were analysed. Faunal spectrum
was established by using the NISP (Number of Identifed
Specimens) and MNI (Minimum Number of Individuals)
calculated from bone and dental remains. The age at death
for pigs was estimated from the abrasion stages of the
lower jaw teeth (Grant 1982); for sheep and goat we used
the method developed by Helmer (1995; see Helmer, Vigne
2004). In some cases, the degree of epiphyseal fusion and
closure of cranial sutures in animals were registered (Silver
1969). The distinction between sheep and goats depended
on morphological features (Prummel, Frisch, 1986) and
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Tereza Šálková, Petra Houfková, Jaroslav Jiřík, Lenka Kovačiková, Jan Novák, Martin Pták, Tomáš Bešta, Alžběta Čejková, Eva Myšková: Economy and Environment
of a Medieval Town Refected in Wells Backfll in Písek, Bakaláře Square (South Bohemia, Czech Republic)
68
Figure 5:
Bakaláře Square, Písek, well 1. Fragments of kitchen pottery. Drawing by T. Šálková, edited by M. Pták.
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Tereza Šálková, Petra Houfková, Jaroslav Jiřík, Lenka Kovačiková, Jan Novák, Martin Pták, Tomáš Bešta, Alžběta Čejková, Eva Myšková: Economy and Environment
of a Medieval Town Refected in Wells Backfll in Písek, Bakaláře Square (South Bohemia, Czech Republic)
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Figure 6:
Bakaláře Square, Písek, well 1. Fragments of storage and imported pottery. Drawing by T. Šálková, edited by M. Pták.
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of a Medieval Town Refected in Wells Backfll in Písek, Bakaláře Square (South Bohemia, Czech Republic)
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additional information from an assemblage’s history (
e.g.
fragmentation during butchering or weathering) guided the
taphonomic analysis.
4. Results
4.1 Wooden artefacts and dendrochronology
Hundreds of wooden fragments were recovered from the
sediment of well 1, layer 2. Most of the fragments are
considered as being from production and construction waste.
Among the tools, a wooden whisk was found. Only one piece
of fr wood (
Abies
) could be dated by dendrochronology
to the year 1318 A.D., but the sample did not include the
outermost ring. Being a relatively small piece of wood, an
unknown amount of tree rings could have been removed
during the processing, but the date does give some idea
concerning the start of the well’s inflling process.
4.2 Ceramics
Kitchen and storage pottery and fragments of bricks, tiles,
and pantiles (roof tile) were found. Almost 500 fragments
of ceramic vessels were obtained from well 1. Only the
top layer of well 2 was excavated. Ceramic fragments
from both wells can be dated to the 14
th
century (see
discussion). Kitchen pottery was represented by fragments
of pots (
e.g.
Figure 5: 1, 9, 23), pitchers (Figure 5: 20),
and bowls/lids (
e.g.
Figure 5: 6, 22). One fragment of a
burner or low bowl (Figure 5: 6), and two fragments of a
cup or bowl (Figure 5: 25) were also collected. The pottery
rim profling varies (
e.g.
Figure 5), ledge and horizontally
everted rims being dominant. Horizontally-grooved rims
were present, and some vessel bottoms were marked by
pouring sand underneath. Horizontal engraved decoration
was prominent, and decoration by tracing wheels was not
represented in the ceramic collection; reduction fring was
found to be dominant.
A torso of a thin-walled vessel made of light clay
(Figure 6: 9) is unique; it was made on a potter’s wheel, with
the underside carrying string cut traces.
Many fragments of storage pottery with a mixture of
graphite were found. The vessels are characterised by large
inverted edges (Figure 6: 1, 2), and the decoration consisted
of both single and multiple horizontal grooves. Some
graphite vessels were marked by stamps (Figure 6: 3, 4), and
repair holes were also frequent (Figure 6: 5).
4.3 Other artefacts
Many fragments of iron slags were found in layer 1; X-Ray
Fluorescent Analysis revealed that one sample contained
Figure 7:
Písek, Bakaláře, well 1. A – Macroremains analysis compared with
the pollen analysis. Waterlogged macroremains are light grey and carbonised
material marked in black. Results of pollen analysis are marked in grey.
B – Analysis of charcoal and wood compared with the pollen analysis.
Charcoal are in black and wood marked in light grey. Results of pollen
analysis are marked in grey.
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Table 1.
Bakaláře Square, Písek, well 1. List of plant macroremains (c – carbonised; n – waterlogged), wood (w) and charcoal (ch), in NISP (Number of
Identifed Specimens).
Sample
12
Sample
12
Sample
12
Abies alba
n
2
Hordeum vulgare
var.
vulgare
r
c
6
Ranunculus
cf.
repens
n
6
1
Abies
ch
254
Hordeum vulgare
var.
vulgare
n
3
Ranunculus fammula
n
82
Abies
w
13cf.
Hordeum vulgare
c
2
Ranunculus
sp.
n
5
3
Agrostemma githago
n
42
Humulus lupulus
n
3740cf.
Rosaceae
n
2
Ajuga genevensis
n
1
Hyoscyamus niger
n
3
Rubus fruticosus
c
2
Alchemilla/Afarens
n
2
Hypericum perforatum
n
565
Rubus fruticosus
n
3
2
Anagalis arvensis
n
92
Chenopodium album
n
774138cf.
Rubus fruticosus
c
2
6
Anthemis arvensis
n
52
Chenopodium fcifolium
n
5312
Rubus ideaus
c
1
Apiaceae
n
21
Chenopodium hybridum
n
71
Rubus ideaus
n
145
Arenaria serpyllifolia
n
651
Chenopodium
sp.
n
32
Rumex acetosella
n
78
6
Asteraceae
n
5
3
cf.
Juniperus communis
n
1
Rumex obttusifolius/crispus
n
6
Atriplex
sp.
n
33
2Lamiaceae
n
11
Rumex
sp.
n
1
Betula
ch
82
Lamium
cf.
amplexicaule
n
9
Salix
ch
4
Cannabis sativa
n
2
Lamium
sp.
n
1
Salix
w
3
7
Carex
cf.
brizoides
n
6
Lapsana communis
n
1518
Scirpus sylvaticus
n
701
Carex
cf.
contigua
n
1
cf.
Leucosinapis alba
c
1
Scleranthus annuus
n
124
Carex
cf.
disticha
n
842cf.
Lolium perenne
n
1
Secale cereale
c
271
Carex
cf.
hirta
n
51
Lycopus europaneus
n
2
cf.
Secale cereale
c
2
Carex
cf.
pallescens
n
27
Lychnis foss cuculi
n
3
Setaria
cf.
viridis
n
1
Carex
cf.
vulpina
n
12
Malus/Pyrus
n
11
Silene vulgare
n
259
Carex
sp.
n
4
Mentha
cf.
aquatica
n
11
Solanum dulcamara
n
6
7
Centaurea cyanus
n
7
6
Mentha
cf.
aquatica
m
1
Sonchus
cf.
oleraceus
n
1
Cerealia
c
427
Neslia paniculata
c
1
Stachys arvensis
n
1
Cerealia straw
n
42
Neslia paniculata
n
3
5
Stellaria graminea
c
1
Cirsium
cf.
arvense
n
5
Panicum miliaceum
c
1
Stellaria graminea
n
198
Clinopodium vulgare
n
1
Panicum miliaceum
n
1
36
Stellaria media
n
12110
Corylus avellana
frag.
n
138
Papaver rhoeas
n
12
Thlaspi arvense
n
148
Corylus
ch
6
2
Persicaria lapatifolia
n
135
Tilia
ch
2
Crateagus
sp.
n
1
Picea
ch
201
Trifolium arvense
n
2
Cyperaceae
n
8
3
Picea
w
3
27
Triticum aestivum
c
1
cf.
Daucus carota
n
1
3
Pinus
c
1
Triticum aestivum/
compactum
c
6
Dianthus deltoides
n
3
Pinus
n
44
Urtica dioica
n
575
Eleocharis
sp.
n
312
Pinus
ch
10316
Urtica urens
n
51
Fagus
w
21
Pinus
w
6
71
Valerianella dentata
n
438
Fagus
ch
225
Poaceae
n
4
Verbena offcinalis
n
3
Fallopia convolvulus
n
3714
Poaceae leaf
n
3
2
Viola
sp.
c
1
Ficus carica
n
1832
Polygonum aviculare
n
219
33
Viola
sp.
n
44
6
Fragaria
sp.
n
35
cf.
Populus
tremula
n
15
Vitis vinifera
c
1
Fragaria vesca
n
227
Potentila erecta
n
19
Vitis vinifera
n
1
Galeopsis tetrahit/bifda
n
2
Prunella vulgaris
n
4
3indeterminata
n
17
3
Galium palustre
c
1
Prunus
sp.
n
12bark
n
37
Galium spurium
c
2
Prunus spinosa
n
2
bud
c
2
Galium spurium
n
6
Quercus
ch
89bud
n
4314
Geranium
cf.
dissectum
z
1
Quercus
w
7
leaf
n
22
Geranium disectum
n
36
10cf.
Quercus
n
4311moss
n
58
Hordeum vulgare
c
6
cf.
Thalictrum favum
n
1
iron, barium, lanthanum, and cerium. As previously
mentioned, many small fragments of opalised glass were
found in layer three, but it was impossible to determine the
type of glass artefact.
4.4 Plant macroremains
Two samples (sample 1: layer 2, 20 litres; sample 2: layer 3,
8 litres; Figure 4A) were analysed for plant macroremains:
3,193 determinations and 99 taxa were recorded (wood and
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of a Medieval Town Refected in Wells Backfll in Písek, Bakaláře Square (South Bohemia, Czech Republic)
72
Table 2.
Bakaláře Square, Písek, well 1. Waterlogged macroremains of well 1 in Bakaláře Square, Písek; A: layer two, sample one; B: layer three, sample
two. Macroremains were categorized into groups and ranked by frequency in the sample.
A: sample 1; layer 2
segetal/ruderal
Chenopodium album, Polygonum aviculare, Stellaria media, Chenopodium fcifolium, Valerianella
dentata, Fallopia convolvulus, Atriplex
sp.
, Chenopodium
sp.
, Lapsana communis, Thlaspi arvense,
Papaver rhoeas, Scleranthus annuus, Anagalis arvensis, Lamium amplexicaule, Centaurea cyanus,
Chenopodium hybridum, Galium spurium, Neslia paniculata
segetal
Rumex acetosella, Arenaria serpyllifolia, Geranium dissectum, Anthemis arvensis, Agrostemma
gythago, Stachys arvensis
ruderal/wetland
Urtica dioica, U. urens
segetal/ruderal/ wetland
Persicaria lapatifolia, Rumex obttusifolius/crispus
ruderal
Hyoscyamus niger
ruderal/meadows
Lolium perenne,
cf.
Daucus carota
wetland plants
Carex
cf.
disticha, Ranunculus fammula, Scirpus sylvaticus, Humulus lupulus, Eleocharis
sp.
, Carex
cf.
pallescens, Potentila erecta, Stellaria graminea, Carex vulpina, Cyperaceae, Carex
cf.
brizoides,
Ranunculus repens, Solanum dulcamara, Carex hirta, Ranunculus
sp.,
Lycopus, Carex
cf.
contigua,
Galium palustre, Mentha aquatica
meadows
Alchemilla/Afarens, Poaceae, Prunella vulgaris
dry environment
Hypericum perforatum, Silene vulgare, Dianthus deltoides, Verbena offcinalis, Trifolium arvense,
Clinopodium vulgare
buds and needlesindeterminata buds, cf.
Quercus
, cf.
Populus tremula, Pinus
sp
.
other useful plants
Fragaria
sp.
, Fragaria vesca, Rubus ideaus, Corylus avellana, Rubus fruticosus, Cannabis sativa,
Prunus spinosa, Prunus spinosa, Prunus
sp
., Vitis vinifera
imported fruit
Ficus carica
cereals
Cerealia, Panicum miliaceum
B: sample 2; layer 3
segetal/ruderal
Chenopodium album, Polygonum aviculare, Lapsana communis, Fallopia convolvulus, Chenopodium
fcifolium, Stellaria media, Valerianella dentata, Thlaspi arvense, Centaurea cyanus, Neslia paniculata,
Cirsium
cf.
arvense, Scleranthus annuus, Atriplex
sp
., Anagalis arvensis, Chenopodium hybridum,
Sonchus oleraceus
segetal
Geranium dissectum, Rumex acetosella, Agrostemma gythago, Anthemis arvensis, Arenaria
serpyllifolia, Setaria viridis
ruderal/wetland
Urtica dioica, U. urens
ruderal
Galeopsis tetrahit/bifda
ruderal/meadowscf.
Daucus carota
segetal/ruderal/wetland
Persicaria lapatifolia
wetland plants
Humulus lupulus, Stellaria graminea, Solanum dulcamara, Cyperaceae, Ranunculus
sp.,
Carex
cf.
disticha, Eleocharis
sp.,
Scirpus sylvaticus, Ranunculus repens, Carex hirta, Mentha aquatica,
cf.
Thalictrum favum, Rumex
sp.
meadows
Geranium dissectum, Rumex acetosella, Agrostemma gythago, Anthemis arvensis, Arenaria
serpyllifolia, Setaria viridis
dry environment
Silene vulgare, Hypericum perforatum
buds and needlesindeterminata buds, cf.
Quercus
sp.,
Pinus
sp.,
Abies alba,
cf.
Juniperus communis
other useful plants
Corylus avellana, Fragaria vesca, Rubus ideaus, Rubus fruticosus, Prunus
sp.
Malus/Pyrus, Crateagus
sp.
imported fruit
Ficus carica
cereals
Panicum miliaceum, Hordeum vulgare, Cerealia
charcoal are excluded; Table 1). The concentrations of the
plant macroremains was 130.45 per litre in sample 1 and 73
per litre in sample 2. Both samples consisted of carbonised
and waterlogged plant remains (waterlogged: sample 1:
96.5%; sample 2: 95.3%). Carbonised macroremains were
represented mainly by cereals (sample 1: 91%; sample 2:
51%).
4.4.1 Carbonised macroremains
The predominant species in sample 1 were the following
cereals: Cerealia
, Secale cereale, Hordeum vulgare, Triticum
aestivum/compactum, Panicum miliaceum
; useful fruit
(
Rubus fruticosus
); segetal (
Geranium dissectum
); segetal/
ruderal (
Galium spurium, Neslia paniculata
); and wetland
plants (
Galium palustre;
Figure 7). Sample 2 contained a
noticeable amount of cereals (Cerealia
, Hordeum vulgare,
Secale cereale
) and useful fruit (
Rubus fruticosus, Rubus
ideaus, Vitis vinifera
), whereas evidence of segetal
(
Leucosinapis alba
) and wetland (
Stellaria graminea
) plants
was rare (Table 1; Figure 7).
4.4.2 Waterlogged macroremains
Sample 1 in the category of waterlogged macroremains
(Tables 1 and 2A, Figure 7) provided strong evidence of
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of a Medieval Town Refected in Wells Backfll in Písek, Bakaláře Square (South Bohemia, Czech Republic)
73
plants typical for rubble and feld: 58% of segetal/ruderal,
8% of segetal, 3% of ruderal/wetland, and 1% segetal/
ruderal/wetland were recorded.
Evidence of wetland plants formed 17% of the waterlogged
plant macroremain evidence. Buds and needles of trees
represented 4% of the waterlogged macroremains, and
evidence of macroremains typical for dry environments, as
well as other useful plants, formed 4%. Imported fruits were
marginally recorded (1%); evidence of plant macroremains
typical for meadows came at 1%, and cereals were marginally
represented (Figure 7).
Sample 2 in the category of waterlogged macroremains
(Tables 1 and 2B, Figure 7) indicated a dominance of plants
typical for ruderal sites and feld: 50% segetal/ruderal, 4%
segetal, 1% ruderal/wetland, ruderal, ruderal/meadows, and
segetal/ruderal/wetland plants. Evidence of wetland plants
formed 13% of waterlogged plant macroremain evidence, buds
of trees and needles were represented by 6% of waterlogged
macroremains, and evidence of macroremains typical for
dry environment was formed by 3% of determinations; other
useful plants represented 8% of waterlogged macroremains,
especially imported fruit (6%), 8% of waterlogged
macroremains was represented by cereals, and evidence of
plant macroremains typical for meadows was 1% (Figure 7).
4.4.3 Cereals
Cereals accounted for 3.6% of the macroremains in the well
infll (layer 2, sample 1; n=92).
Secale cereale
was dominant,
but
Hordeum vulgare
,
Triticum aestivum
, and
Panicum
miliaceum
were also documented. Half of the grains could
only be determined as
Cerealia
. Overall, 92.4% of cereal
evidence was conserved by carbonisation; only 7.6% was
preserved by waterlogging.
Cereals formed 9.4% of the macroremains at the bottom
of the well (layer three, sample two; n=55).
Panicum
miliaceum
in the form of glumes was dominant;
Hordeum
vulgare
and
Secale cereale
were documented as additional
crops. Approximately 17% of the documented cereals were
determined only as
Cerealia.
Only
25.5% of cereal evidence
was conserved by carbonisation, 74.5% (especially millet
glumes) were preserved by waterlogging.
4.4.4 Other useful species
A characteristic group of collected fruits were represented
among other useful species; grown fruit and nuts were less
common. Potential spices were frequently documented,
and other useful species formed 5.92% of the documented
macroremains in the well infll (layer two, sample 1; n=153).
Strawberries (
Fragaria vesca, Fragaria
sp.) were dominant,
and raspberries (
Rubus ideaus
) and blackberries (
Rubus
fruticosus
) were often documented. Blackthorn (
Prunus
spinosa
,
Prunus
sp.) and hazel (
Corylus avellana
) were rarely
found. Figs (
Ficus carica
) were frequently documented as an
imported fruit, and grown fruit were represented by apples
and pears (
Malus/Pyrus
) and grapevines (
Vitis vinifera
).
Potential spices could be hops (
Humulus lupulus
), which
was the dominant useful plant in sample 1. Hemp (
Cannabis
sativa
) was rare, and 97.4% of macroremains were preserved
and waterlogged in sample 1.
Other useful species formed 18.1% of the documented
macroremains at the bottom of the well (layer 3, sample 2,
n=106). Hops (
Humulus lupulus
) was a dominant potentially
useful plant. Figs (
Ficus carica
) were more frequent than in
sample one. Strawberries (
Fragaria vesca
), raspberries (
Rubus
ideaus
), blackberries (
Rubus fruticosus
), blackthorn (
Prunus
sp.), hazel (
Corylus avellana
), and hawthorn (
Crateagus
sp.)
were rarely found. Grown fruit was represented by apples
and pears (
Malus/Pyrus
) and grapevines (
Vitis vinifera
), as
well as in sample one. In sample 2, 92.5% of macroremains
were preserved and waterlogged.
4.5 Charcoal and wood remains
Two charcoal and wood samples were analysed (Figure 7B),
and 9 taxons and 414 determinations were recorded (for list
of determinations, see Table 1). The charcoal mass of infll
well 1, layer 2
(
sample 1
)
was 12,067 g/l, and the bottom
well 1, layer 3 (sample 2) was 12,541 g/l. The bottom layer
contained a large amount of wood fragments, and pine
(
Pinus sylvestris
) had a dominant presence. A large number
of spruce (
Picea abies
) wood was also recorded. Other
wood fragments were identifed as fr (
Abies alba
), oak
(
Quercus
sp.), willow (
Salix
sp.), and occasionally beech
(
Fagus sylvatica
). Many small pieces of rods and frewood
charcoal pieces were contained in the bottom layer. Oak
and pine charcoals were the most abundant; beech, fr, and
willow charcoals were widespread; and birch (
Betula
sp.),
hazel (
Corylus avellana
), and spruce were rare fnds. The
infll layer was characterised by a large amount of charcoal
and only the small occurrence of wood fragments. This layer
was distinguished by a large amount of pine charcoal pieces
and frequent discoveries of beech, spruce, and fr charcoal.
Only a small amount of pine, spruce, oak, beech, hazel, and
willow wood fragments were found in this layer.
4.6 Pollen analysis
The pollen spectrum of sample 2 (well 1, layer three)
consisted
of 73 pollen types/families/genera, and 481 determinations
were recorded (see Table 3). The spectrum was 89% non-
arboreal pollen (NAP). Anthropogenic indicators (AI)
dominated the spectrum.
A total of 32.2% consisted of cereals (
Triticum
type,
Secale
cereale
,
Hordeum
type,
Avena
type,
Cerealia
type). Pollen
grains of cornfower (
Centaurea cyanus
) comprised over
6%, and poppy (
Papaver rhoeas
type) accounted for 1.3%.
Species of disturbed areas, such as knot-grass (
Polygonum
aviculare
type), ruderals of the families Chenopodiaceae
and Brassicaceae, weeds such as
Anthemis arvensis
type,
and
Rumex acetosa
type, were the major pollen types in the
sample. Species of
Humulus lupulus
type (both
Humulus
lupulus
and
Cannabis sativa
) represented 1.9%.
Overall, 9.2% of identifed pollen grains belonged to
Poaceae
, and 6.24% were
Ranunculus acris
type (together
with
Ranunculus acris
group).
Plantago lanceolata
type
just exceeded the threshold of 1%. Among arboreal pollen
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of a Medieval Town Refected in Wells Backfll in Písek, Bakaláře Square (South Bohemia, Czech Republic)
74
(AP), this threshold was only exceeded by pollen grains
of pioneer species of pine (
Pinus sylvestris
type) and birch
(
Betula pubescens
type), followed by spruce (
Picea
sp.).
The total AP represented 11%. Among other tree species,
oak (
Quercus robur
group), beech (
Fagus sylvatica
type),
lime (
Tilia cordata
type), willow (
Salix
sp.), hazel (
Corylus
avellana
type), alder (
Alnus glutinosa
type), fr (
Abies
sp.),
maple (
Acer campestre
type), and elder (
Sambucus nigra
type) were identifed (Figure 7B).
Along with previously-mentioned grazing-indicator
Plantago lanceolata
type, pollen grains of juniper (
Juniperus
communis
type), sheep sorrel (
Rumex acetosella
), and
heather (
Calluna vulgaris
) scarcely appeared. Species of
wet meadows as represented by, for example,
Peucedanum
Table 3.
Bakaláře Square, Písek, well 1, layer 3 (sample 2). List of pollen determinations.
Pollen/NPP type
Count
Pollen/NPP type
Count
Parasite egg
Filipendula
-type cf.1
Ascaris
sp.22
Geum
-type1
cf
Ascaris
sp.1
Hordeum
-type2
Trichuris
sp.30
Humulus lupulus
1
Arboreal pollen
Humulus
/
Cannabis sativa
4
Abies
-type2
Hypericum perforatum
-type2
Acer campestre
-type1Chenopodiaceae15
Alnus glutinosa
-type2Lamiaceae1
Betula pubescens
-type7
Lathyrus
/
Viccia
1
Calluna vulgaris
1
Lysimachia vulgaris
-type1
Corylus avellana
-type2
Medicago lupulina
1
Fagus sylvatica
-type
3
Mentha
-type2
Juniperus communis
-type1
Mercurialis
sp.1
Picea
-type5
Microrrhinum minus
1
Pinus sylvestris
-type18
Papaver rhoeas
-type
6
Quercus robur
-type
3
Papaver
sp.1
Salix
-type2
Peucedanum palustre
-type
3
Sambucus nigra
-type
3
Plantago lanceolata
5
Tilia cordata
2
Plantago media
1
Nonarboreal pollen
Poaceae
44
Alchemilla pentaphyllea
-type1
Polygonum aviculare
-type18
Anagallis arvensis
-type
3
Polygonum
cf.1
Anagallis arvensis
-type cf.1
Ranunculus acris
-group18
Anthemis arvensis
-type13
Ranunculus acris
-type12
Anthriscus
sp.1
Ranunculus acris
-type cf.1
Apiaceae1
Rumex acetosa
-type5
Artemisia vulgaris
-type
3
Rumex acetosella
2
Asteraceae - Asteroideae2
Rumex
cf.1
Asteraceae - Cichorioideae4
Sanguisorba offcinalis
-type1
Astragalus
-type2
Scleranthus annuus
1
Avena
-type2
Secale cereale
56
Brassicaceae13
Senecio vulgaris
-type1
Cannabis sativa4
Silene dioica
-type1
Carex
-type2
Sonchus oleraceus
-type1
Carex
cf.1
Taraxacum offcinale
-type2
Caryophyllaceae1
Torilis japonica
cf.1
Centaurea cyanus
29
Triticum
-type61
Cerastium fontanum
-type
3
Urtica dioica
-type1
Cerealia34
Lemna
-type cf.1
Convolvulus arvensis
-type1
Equisetum
sp.2
Cyperaceae1
Lycopodium
sp.1
Daucus carota
-type/
Pimpinela major
1
Anthoceros
sp.1
Dianthus superbus
-type1Broken and corroded19
Filipendula
-type2
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of a Medieval Town Refected in Wells Backfll in Písek, Bakaláře Square (South Bohemia, Czech Republic)
75
palustre
type,
Filipendula
type, Cyperaceae
/Carex
,
Pimpinella
major
type,
Lysimachia vulgaris
type, and
Sanguisorba
offcinalis
, belonged to the “rare occurring species/types” in
the sample. The rare presence of other weeds was confrmed,
e.g.
Microrrhinum minus
,
Scleranthus annuus
type,
Anagallis
arvensis
type,
Artemisia vulgaris
type,
Convolvulus arvensis
type, and
Sonchus oleraceus
type.
4.7 Parasitology
Presence of parasite eggs was confrmed in the sample based
on the concentration technique and fotation method. Three
genus of helminths were identifed:
Capillaria
sp.,
Ascaris
sp., and
Trichuris
sp. Moreover, the presence of intestinal
parasite eggs was recorded along with the pollen, which
enabled us to estimate their abundance. Besides the 481 total
pollen counts, eggs of the genus
Ascaris
sp. and
Trichuris/
Capillaria
sp. reached 22 and 30 counts, respectively (9.8%
parasite eggs on TPS and NPP).
4.8 Archaeozoology
Well-preserved osteological material was found in both
wells, and 158 faunal remains were recorded in total.
Remains of domestic fauna were prevalent, and the element
representation was varied (among described specimens,
e.g.
fragments of skulls and jaws, long bones, autopodials, ribs,
shoulder blades, and pelvis).
Well 1:
All the determined fnds (little in layer 1 and 3,
many in layer 2) refected the presence of domestic animals
(88.7% of NISP); cattle (
Bos taurus
), horse (
Equus caballus
),
sheep (
Ovis aries
) and alternatively goats (
Capra hircus
),
pigs (
Sus domesticus
), dog (
Canis familiaris
), and cat (
Felis
catus
). Several bones of postcranial skeletons
of small
rodents,
e.g.
mice (
Mus
sp.) were found only at the bottom
of the well (layer 3, sample 2). From the total number of
139 bones and teeth, 44.6 % (NISP=62) of specimens found
were taxonomically identifed. The rest of the specimens
(55.4 %; NISP=77) were identifed as large or middle-sized
mammals, very small rodents and undetermined mammals.
Among the unidentifed part of the assemblage (layer 2,
sample 1) a fragment of damaged scale of fsh was also
present. The archaeozoological data are assumed in Table 4.
Most of the bones were dark brown in colour, which
refects the anaerobic conditions in that part of the well
where the animal bones were deposited in the 14
th
century.
The astragalus bone of an adult horse had weathering cracks
and was found in layer 1 of well 1. It was the only part of
the animal found in both well 1 and within the rest of the
salvage excavation of medieval contexts at the Bakaláře
square, Písek.
In the narrowing part of well 1 (lower part of layer 2) an
incomplete adult bull horn was found. The porous fragment
of the frontal bone belonged to a juvenile (calf), as well
as a fragment of left jaw bone found in the upper part of
layer 2. The nearly complete hornless skull of a sheep older
than 6 years was also uncovered. The second sheep in the
archaeozoological collection was determined by a partly
Table 4.
Bakaláře Square, Písek, wells 1 and 2, faunal spectra. NISP (Number of Identifed Specimens), N (Number of
Undetermined Specimens), MNI (Minimum Number of Individuals). The percentages are expressed as proportions of total
remains.
WELL 1
Faunal spectraNISP; N % NISP; % N
MNI
Cattle (
Bos taurus
)85.76
3
Horse (
Equus caballus
)10.721
Domestic pig (
Sus domesticus
)21.441
Sheep (
Ovis aries
)42.882
Sheep/goat (
Ovis/Capra
)3021.58
3
Dog (
Canis familiaris
)10.721
Domestic cat (
Felis catus
)96.471
Mouse (
Mus
sp.)75.042
Large and middle-sized mammals2014.39–
Very small rodent4935.3–
Undetermined mammal75.04–
Undetermined fsh10.72–
Total13910014
WELL 2
Faunal spectraNISP; N % NISP; % N
MNI
Cattle (
Bos taurus
)
3
15.791
Domestic pig (
Sus domesticus
)
6
31.582
Sheep/goat (
Ovis/Capra
)15.261
Hare (
Lepus europaeus
)15.261
Large and middle-sized mammals842.11–
Total191005
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76
damaged jaw bone of the slaughtered animal in the lower
part of layer 2. If the jaw bone was connected with the skull,
mentioned above, is unclear. Some parts of caprines (“goats-
sheep”) were not distinguished, but specimens included two
tibia bones with different degrees of epiphyseal fusion. The
specimen drawings confrm that these must be from two
individuals. The individual age of one of them was less than
3 years, and the second animal was older. The other sheep/
goat bones (parts of fore and hindlimbs), deposited in the
upper part of layer 2, pointed to osteological material from a
third, physically immature, individual (less than 3 years old).
Teeth, believed to be from a pig, belonged to an animal killed
between 12 and 18 months old. In some cases, the butchery
marks on the bones were visible. The cut marks were noticed
on meat-bearing bones,
e.g.
on ribs of caprines, ischium
of cattle, and shoulder blades of a large-sized mammal. A
slightly damaged thoracic vertebra of an adult dog and part
of an adult cat skeleton (including pelvis, some long limb
bones, and ribs) were recorded by osteological analysis.
Almost all of the carnivore bones were darkly coloured, with
the exception of the light-coloured radius of the cat, which
probably belonged to the aforementioned skeleton.
Well 2
:
The archaeozoological collection was obtained
from the test probes in the upper layer of well 2. The
identifcation of the bones in this sample confrmed the
presence of one cattle, two pigs, one sheep/goat, and one
hare (
Lepus europaeus
), which was the only wild animal in
the whole assemblage (Table 4). From the total number of
19 bones, teeth, and their fragments found, 57.9% (NISP=11)
of the specimens were taxonomically identifed. The
exploitation of pigs for consumption was supported by the
observation that a third of the bones had butchering marks
on their surface. The pigs were slaughtered at an immature
age, before reaching 2 years old. The domestic animals were
represented both by meat-bearing bones and fragments of the
skulls or teeth. The frst phalanx of cattle found in well 2 had
been modifed to make a tool.
5. Discussion
Archaeological and bioarchaeological evidence from the
investigation of the well infll can partly answer the questions
of infll origin and well utilization.
5.1 Dating of the backfll based on ceramic chronology
and dendrochronology
Dating and placing of pottery fragments from the surface of
well 1 (layer 1) and well 2 (layer 1) is identical. However,
we could only defne and compare the chronologically-latest
backfll on the surfaces. We do not know whether both wells
performed their primary function at the same time.
Some of the pottery fragments could be identifed as
imported vessels associated with long-distance trade
contacts or the presence of foreign ethnic groups (colonists
and specialised craftsmen, coming from the area of present-
day Germany and Austria). Analogous thin-walled vessels
made of light clay (Figure 6: 9), are known from a medieval
cesspit in Most (Klápště 2002, 21–22, Figures 123: 4, 144:
3) dated to the 14
th
century.
Graphite pottery from Bohemia is typical for the
13
th
–15
th
centuries, although it is not chronologically
sensitive. Ceramics made with a mixture of graphite could
be used to process and transport tar; as the crusts on the walls
of these vessels confrmed.
No entire vessels were found; this shows that only
fragments were thrown into the well. In ceramic collections
from wells, datable fnds in a broader chronological section
are quite common phenomena in an urban environment.
It refects the complex of processes that shaped the
archaeological terrain in medieval towns (generally Nováček
2003, 131–146; Čapek 2010).
The pottery here can be dated on the basis of analogies
from urban and rural settlements from the south Bohemian
area and elsewhere (Reichertová 1965; Richter, Krajíc 2001;
Procházka 1994; Nekuda, Reichertová 1968; Radoměrský,
Richter 1976; Vařeka 1998, Orna ed. 2011), to the middle
of the 14
th
century. A few pottery fragments of vessels
found at the bottom of the well were also dated to the
middle of the 14
th
century. Based on dendrochronological
dating, the well was backflled after the year 1318, which
is consistent with the dating of the ceramics. Due to the
fact that the town was founded around 1243, the well could
have been used for its primary function (water reservoir)
for at least 100 years.
5.2 Reconstruction of the economy and environment at
the time of the wells inflling – character of the infll
The advent of location and institutional towns brought a
footprint on the behaviour of the population. The urban area
was divided into fxed property parcels – and the rights and
obligations of the population related to their possession of
these plots. Various aspects of human life became adapted to
the new framework. In archaeology, the changes are refected
in waste disposal and storage (Klápště 2005, 388; Hoffmann
1992, 331).
The accumulation of household waste, which often ended
in the street, was a problem. There were also complications
associated with agricultural activities (breeding of domestic
animals or cultivation of plants) in the town. Some handcrafts
were banished beyond the town walls for their production of
impurities (pollutants) and odours, while others stayed within
the towns. In particular, butcher waste caused substantial
hygienic problems (Hoffmann 1992, 332). Various methods
of urban waste deposition were evident. Sometimes a series
of pits were used, sometimes items were consistently thrown
into or taken away by the river (Klápště 2005, 392).
The wider urban area included both the fortifed core of
the town and the suburbs, where agricultural land cultivated
directly from the town, and gardens and vineyards, were
included.
The infuence of several towns reached into nearby
villages (Hoffmann, 1992, 82). Urban development was
associated with relations and contacts between the urban
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community and its regional and supra-regional contexts.
The agricultural hinterland of towns brought a beneft both
for the towns and villages, and at the same time deepened
the relation between them (Klápště 2005). The different raw
materials and products were transported to the towns as a
result of these contacts, and their remains and leftovers were
subsequently deposited as waste.
The application of multiple bioarchaeological methods
helped to reconstruct and interprete the infll of the well, even
though the analyses were applied to only two samples. We
partly managed to reconstruct the environmental conditions
of the town and its surroundings, as well as the economic
background of the town (waste management, food strategy,
animal husbandry, and exploitation of natural resources).
We suggest that in the case of a feature with a clear, simple
stratigraphy, and when salvage excavations are limited by
proper fnancial support, it is better to include several types
of analyses to a low number of samples, rather than doing
one type of analysis on many samples based on systematic
sub-sampling. Our results imply that the socio-economic
reconstruction of the medieval town can be fully reliable in
such cases.
The investigated feature (well 1) could be interpreted as
a secondary backflled well. The character of the bottom,
layer 3, cannot be considered as pure faecal waste (after
Smith 2013). However, faecal inclusion should be taken
into consideration due to the presence of the eggs of
intestinal parasites, which was confrmed by parasitological
investigation. This result was supported by relatively
high amounts of
Ascaris
,
Trichuris
, and
Capillaria
egg
remains recorded on the pollen slides. The presence of fruit
macroremains (ca 8%) could support the assumption of its
faecal origin. But, their abundance was low in comparison
to the high proportions of segetals/ruderals (more than 50%)
and species of wetlands and meadows (
cf.
Figueiral, Séjalon
2014; Florenzano
et al.
2012).
The recovered macroremains and the pollen spectrum
from layers 2 and 3 probably refect waste plant material of
various origins. The occurrence of plant species typical for
meadows could indicate the presence of hay residues and the
issue of the storage and transportation of such grasses into the
town (Kosňovská
et al.
2011), and secondarily stored inside
well 1 after the loss of its primary function. Such species
compositon of the well infll most likely refects the plant
material (macroremains) that was brought into the town from
different surrounding habitats (foodplains and felds are the
most obvious;
cf.
Figueiral, Séjalon 2010).
Based on the stratigraphy and results of the
bioarchaeological analyses, we can interpret the formation
of the three layers of well 1. Layer 3 was dark and muddy
with sand and was deposited at the bottom of the well. It
is possible to interpret this layer as primarily sediment in
the period of the ending of its function as a well, when the
water was partly contaminated by waste. Its macroremain
concentration is much lower than in layer 2, and the absence
of diatom frustules in the samples examined suggests either
a terrestrial origin for the sediment or inappropriate living
conditions for diatoms in an existing aquatic environment.
The latter could have been caused by a limited access of light
into the water column
e.g.
the use of a hatch. In the third
eventuality, there could have been dissolution of silica-built
diatom frustules after its deposition and this should also be
taken into account, although the high sediment-carbonate
content predicative of such a process was not recorded.
Parasite eggs observed in the sample from layer 3 could
have been produced by parasites from animals, as well as
from humans.
Ascaris
sp. and
Trichuris
sp. eggs are the
most common in paleoparasitological fndings (Goncalves
et al.
2003). The genus
Ascaris
has two common species:
A. lumbricoides
in human and
A. suum
in pigs. Due to the
morphological similarity of both species’ eggs, their origin
could not be determined. The same problem occurs with
Trichuris
sp., which parasitise humans (
T. trichiura
), pigs,
and also dogs. Eggs of
Capillaria
sp. (roundworms) were
very abundant in the sample, which are parasites of domestic
animals and rodents. Human infection by this parasite is
very rare but possible. Faecal origin can be attributed to the
waterlogged macroremains of strawberries (
Fragaria vesca,
Fragaria
sp.), raspberries (
Rubus ideaus
), blackberries
(
Rubus fruticosus
), blackthorn (
Prunus spinosa
) and fgs
(
Ficus carica
); as well as these fruits, kitchen waste is also
a possibility (
cf.
Smith 2013; Bosi
et al.
2009). Different
processes revealed charred grains, which were probably
charred before their grinding/milling inside the medieval
town (kitchen waste/burning waste; see, for example,
Petráň 1985, 389–394). Waterlogged glumes
of
Panicum
miliaceum
are evidence of grain cleaning before processing
in the kitchen. Other groups of macroremains (Table 1) and
the pollen spectra (Table 3) document the different origins
of infll: felds, rubble, forests, wetlands, and meadows,
which all refect the town’s economy. The presence of waste,
originally coming from plants probably growing in felds,
rubble, forest, wetlands and meadows, could be a refection
of this (
cf.
Figueiral, Séjalon 2010).
Dirty water from the well was not ideal to drink, so the
well could have lost its primary function and eventually
became a cesspit.
Layer 2 was made up of black muddy sediment and was
deposited from the depth of 4 to 7.6 metres after the year
1318 A.D. The concentrations of macroremains per litre in
layer 2 were much higher compared with layer 3. As with
layer 3, layer 2 also contained waste of various origins,
such as felds, rubble, forests, and wetlands; however, this
deposition of waste was more concentrated. The proportions
of cereal and useful plants were much lower compared
with those in layer 3 (Tables 1 and 2). The character of the
archaeozoological collection could be defned as waste,
being the remains of consumed animals and dead house
animals (Table 4).
Layer 2 can be interpreted as intentional waste storage in
the period after the end of the well’s primary function, and it
is possible to identify this layer as secondary waste sediment.
Layer 1 consisted of fragments of daub, often carrying the
construction imprints, and large iron slags. Based on X-Ray
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Fluorescent Analysis fndings it was impossible to determine
the origin of the daub. It is possible to interpret layer one as
intentional secondary waste storage, perhaps some destroyed
production equipment related to metal processing.
5.3 Animal remains
In the archaeozoological collection of two medieval wells,
according to the representation of bone elements, taxonomic
identifcation , and butchery marks, we can assume that the
remains of consumed herd animals (
e.g.
cattle, sheep, and
pig), house animals (dog or cat), animals used in working
activities (horse), and pests (small rodents), were deposited
in non-functional wells. The animal remains were partially
protected from weathering and scavengers. The animal bones
and teeth were discarded in anaerobic conditions, and they
remained well preserved. The analysis confrmed that the
inhabitants were involved in animal husbandry; hunting was
suggested by one bone from a hare. Despite the low frequency
of bone remains found in the wells, the main source of meat
and other animal products in well 1, were sheep or goats, less
so cattle. Conversely, the bones and teeth of pigs prevailed
in well 2. The slaughter of livestock, both younger and adult
individuals, for meat was evidenced by the butchery marks on
some bone surfaces. The elder individuals were presumably
used for secondary products,
e.g.
milk or wool (in the case of
sheep). The use of animal bones (more specifcally the frst
phalanx from cattle) as a raw material for the making of tools
was likewise confrmed. The distributions of body parts did
not reveal any differences between the wells. The collection
of animal remains can be considered as waste, as bones from
the meaty parts of animals did not outnumber those parts
usually separated out during butchering, such as hooves and
heads. The bone refuse had obviously been mixed in both
wells, no signifcant differences being found in the rate of
fragmentation between the two wells.
5.4 Pollen
The pollen spectra can be considered as being typically
medieval for the contexts of the Czech Republic. The
combination of high amounts of pollen grains of
Secale
cereale
and
Centaurea cyanus
is considered to be an
indicator of High Medieval sediments (
e.g.
Jankovská 1997;
Kočár
et al.
2010; Kozáková
et al.
2014), and the occurrence
of
Centaurea cyanus
was proved to be an indicator of High
Medieval sediments based on the dataset originating from
medieval Prague, Czech Republic (Kozáková
et al.
2009).
The low relative abundance of trees and the high
relative abundance of ruderals and useful plants in the
bioarchaeological record corresponded with the character of
the well infll. Its deposition was human made and caused
by the specifc economical requirements of the material.
Its primary function was most probably as feed or bedding.
Low amounts of arboreal pollen (AP) could correspond to a
high level of deforestation in the area, but the ratio is usually
underestimated in the case of well infll. The comparison
with the AP/NAP ratio from a sample of approximately
the same era (around 1350 A.D.) originating from a nearby
core taken from a relatively large water area, the fshpond
in Řežabinec, shows a discrepancy (Rybníčková, Rybníček
1985). The proportion of AP there was much higher, at
around 45%. This implies that the infll of the well refects
taphonomic processes affected by the direct accumulation
of waste. The composition of trees and shrubs was similar
to the species composition originating from the fshpond in
Řežabinec. The dominance of pine and birch was similar;
however, a lower proportion of spruce was detected in
the case of the well bottom’s pollen spectrum, as the
spruce pollen percentage has continuously increased in
the surroundings since the High Medieval period. An even
higher AP ratio (72.6%) was recorded in small spring mire
in Kožlí situated 10 km northwest of Písek (Pokorný, Kuneš
2009). Despite the relatively vast chronological interval of
the layer corresponding to the time period of our interest, the
given vegetation reconstruction is characterised by high tree
ratios, especially of pine and spruce. In the core taken from
the Smutná River foodplain near Sepekov, situated 25 km
northeast of Písek, arboreal pollen composed one-half of the
recorded spectrum (Houfková
et al.
2011).
This information supports the idea of the well pollen
spectrum having been affected primarily by taphonomic
processes rather than direct waste accumulation.
The bottom, layer 3, would refect the presence of waste
of local origin with a low admixture of bedding waste.
The composition of the pollen spectrum consisted mainly
of cereal species and their weeds. As the analysis of fossil
material recovered from non-specifc urban archaeological
sites has proved repeatedly, the real, local mosaic of habitats
and vegetation is refected in the recovered spectra (Swieta-
Musznicka
et al.
2013); species of local disturbed habitats
could partially contribute to the species composition of the
analysed sample (
e.g.
species of the family Chenopodiaceae,
Brassicaceae, or of pollen types such as
Rumex acetosa
-
type,
Polygonum aviculare
-type). The relatively minor
portion of the pollen spectrum represented by species of the
family
Poaceae
, and species included in the pollen types
Peucedanum palustre
type,
Filipendula
type, Cyperaceae
/
Carex
,
Pimpinella major
type,
Lysimachia vulgaris
type,
and
Sanguisorba offcinalis
, could imply that its origin was
periodically-inundated alluvial wet meadows. The scarce
occurrence of subfossil seeds of
Carex disticha
or
Eleocharis
sp. would support such a scenario.
However, the spectrum of plant species from layer two,
as recovered by the macroremains analysis, would originate
from alluvial meadows characterised as tall-sedge beds.
That could be interpreted as the presence of hay residues and
could suggest the presence of bedding or feed waste.
The species composition of arboreal pollen was comparable
to the species spectrum recorded by the antracological
analysis (Figure 7B).
5.5 Charcoal and wood remains
The large number of fragments of wood and rods suggest
the presence of waste material in the bottom sediment layer.
The wood fragments probably come from the processing of
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structural timber. This bottom layer also contained frewood
charcoal. The source of fuel wood is usually interpreted
as being local, whereas construction wood is given as an
imported material. Medieval wood imports were widely
carried out by foating (
e.g.
Beneš
et al.
2006).
However, the species composition of the pollen samples
refected a similar species composition to that of the
surrounding forests (vegetation). The possible local origin
of structural timber would support the high proportion of
spruce and pine pollen. The infll layer contains signifcantly
more pieces of charcoal. The species composition is more
or less unchanged from the bottom layer, but the quantity
of typical frewood species increases over time. It shows a
higher presence of beech, birch, and hazel charcoal pieces.
The frewood was probably formed by wood-processing
residues, local wood resources, and wood imports from
the surrounding area. The anthracological data reconstruct
the forest vegetation as being acid oak with beech forests
in the vicinity. This reconstruction almost corresponds to a
map of potential vegetation for this area that reconstructs
bird cherry-pedunculate oak and alder woodland partly
in a mosaic with alder carrs, reed swamps, and tall-
sedge communities (
Quercus robur
-
Padus avium
,
Alnus
glutinosa-Padus avium
with
Carex brizoides
, locally with
Carici elongatae-Alnetum
and
Phragmito-Magnocaricetea
)
(Neuhäselová 2001).
5.6 Plant macroremains
The results of the pollen analysis from the samples originating
from the well infll sediment compared to the samples
originating from the natural pollen profles refect different
environments and a complex of taphonomic processes.
Different processes are also refected in the infll of
the well by the charred or waterlogged macroremains.
A comparison of the results of the analysis of pollen and
plant macroremains provides a refection of these different
processes (Figure 7A). Macroremains refect the waste
from crop processes (ruderals/segetals, weeds, and cereal
weeds), which could be used secondarily in the economy
of the medieval town (litter, animal feed, building material,
etc.
), and kitchen waste (glumes of millet, charred grain).
Macroremains typical for meadows and foodplains could
refect the litter and animal feed. In connection with the
fndings of numerous hops seeds, it is possible that the
inhabitants produced beer. This could also be suggested by
the infrequent sprouted barley caryopses related to malting
(Kočár
et al.
in print). Written sources for malting in
Medieval Písek, however, do not exist.
The spectrum of cereals captured in the well infll (
Secale
cereale
,
Hordeum vulgare
,
Triticum aestivum
,
Panicum
miliaceum
) is comparable with all standard quantifed
results in the Czech Republic (Kočár
et al.
2010, Kočár
et al.
in print) and central Europe, typical for the Middle
Ages. However, for typical faecal pits, the concentration
of carbonised grain is not common (for the region of South
Bohemia see, for example, Pokorný
et al.
2002; Opravil in
Krajíc
et al.
1998, 200–204; Čapek
et al.
in print), because
most grain was milled outside town centres; home grinding
was more frequent in the villages (Petráň 1985, 389–394).
We thus believe that the well infll refects more the origins
of the waste.
Other useful species – collected fruits, grown fruits,
nuts, and potential useful spices – could refect a local food
strategy and other areas of resource collection, but they
could also be traded goods. Long-distance trade and regional
markets prospered in the Czech Lands in the Middle Ages
(Klápště 2005, 361). Medieval Písek was situated on one of
the trade routes from the south to Prague (Fröhlich 2013).
Strawberries (
Fragaria vesca, Fragaria
sp.), raspberries
(
Rubus ideaus
), blackberries (
Rubus fruticosus
), blackthorn
(
Prunus spinosa
,
Prunus
sp.), hazel (
Corylus avellana
), and
hawthorn (
Crataegus
sp
.
) may all refect an area of cleared
forests and their edges. Grown fruit was represented by
apples/pears (
Malus/Pyrus
) but was rare; we would have
expected fruit trees to have been grown at the back of the
town (Hoffmann 1992, 144). Fruit was used fresh, dried or
in the form of jam or alcoholic beverages (Hoffmann 1992,
342). The issue of growing hemp (
Cannabis sativa
) and
hops (
Humulus lupulus
) is complicated; it is impossible to
determine whether the seeds were cultivated or secondary
wild plants, but their use in the medieval economy is
probable (
e.g.
hemp oil: Hoffmann 1992, 343). Seeds from
grapevines (
Vitis vinifera
) document either trade or farming.
Figs
(Ficus carica)
were almost certainly imported, which
suggests regular long-distance trade between central and
southern Europe (Hoffmann 1992, 342). The growing of fgs
in the climatically-favourable conditions of towns could be
expected, but for Písek it is not supported by any written
documentation. Figs had an important role in the human
diet as a source of sugar (Figueiral, Séjalon 2010). Alluvial
wet meadows, which were noticeably refected in the plant
macroremains and foodplains, could be expected in the
area immediately behind the town by the Otava River. We
would expect irregular mowing and the gathering of such
resources, especially for animal husbandry (feed, litter), in
the immediate surroundings. Dry meadows, which are also
highlighted by the plant macroremains, could have been
similarly used as were the alluvial wet meadows.
Buds and needles could, like the macroremains of plants
typical for meadows, indicate animal husbandry and also
building material (
Quercus
sp., cf.
Populus tremula
,
Pinus
sp., and
Abies alba
). Needles of
Juniperus communis
may
indicate grazing, and the buds of trees suggest that the
dried
twigs and shoots were used as feed in winter.
6. Conclusion
By processing the two medieval wells excavated in 2008 in
Písek, Bakaláře Square (South Bohemia, Czech Republic),
we were able to apply several different bioarchaeological
methods combined with traditional analyses of artefacts.
Among the methods of bioarchaeology employed were
the analysis of plant macroremains, analysis of wood and
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charcoal, pollen analysis, dendrochronology, archaeozoology,
paleoparasitology, and diatom analysis. Additionally, many
types of artefacts were analysed (ceramics and wood,
fragments of glass, slag, and daub).
Various aspects of human life and behaviour in medieval
Písek were refected in the waste disposal and storage found
inside wells 1 and 2. It was possible to detect imported material
of different origins and to reconstruct the environment of the
town’s background (meadows, felds, gardens, forests,
etc.
),
as well as animal breeding
(
e.g.
cattle, sheep, pig, horse, dog
and cat), growing of crops (
e.g.
cereals and fruits), and waste
management practices.
The infll of the wells was dated to the 14
th
century based
on dendrochronology and artefact typology. Well 1 and well
2 were defnitely backflled probably in the 14
th
century.
Well 2 was not excavated entirely; however, the sediments
were conserved for future research with better scientifc
possibilities.
The position of the two wells, whose original purpose was
apparently to supply water, in the mutual vicinity represents
for current scholars an unclear situation. Perhaps it refects
a former division of medieval alotments, or perhaps they
were dug succesively. The dating of the inflling of the wells,
which, unfortunately, can only be estimated very imprecisely
as one being close to the other, does not allow for a clearer
conclusion. After some period of use both wells were flled
in; the reason for this is also unclear. The character of the
infll is known only in the case of the frst well, which was
excavated in its entirety. The frst part was mostly flled by
a layer, the origin of which could be loosely imagined as
the result of a combination of accumulating animal bedding/
dung and kitchen waste – with occasional “sweepings” of
carcasses. This “unattractive” mass was then covered by a
layer formed probably by the broken up remains of some
large manufacturing production device that could possibly
be ascribed to a furnace for smelting. The active use of
such a device within the city-walls could be considered a
surprise. On the other hand, the site is located in the close
neighbourhood of the church, which could be imagined as
being still partly in construction during the frst half of the
14
th
century.
The analyses of the both upper and lower part of the
sediments from well 1 have brought a suite of information:
a wide range of artefacts and ecofacts that not only fll
taxonomical and analogical lists. It has also brought much
information about the spatial relatioships of the site within
the microworld and macroworld of a medieval town. In this
case, the archaeogeographical relationships can be divided
into three major categories. The frst should include the
evidence formed by the fragments of slag and daub that
probably refects the relations of people and local industry/
trade within the town-wall. Into this category should
probably also belong the fnds of some of the animal bones
that were kept with households (goats, pigs, cats, dogs,
etc.
).
The second category refers to the origin of the plants species
– those used for the feeding and bedding of animals, for
which those of wetlands and meadows are characteristic. The
same is valid for the sources of frewood, and the rest of the
more mobile animal species (horse, cattle,
etc.
). This group
refects the interactions between the town and its economical
hinterland outside the town-wall. Only in this case could the
classical von Thünen’s zones analyses (von Thünen 1826)
for regional and municipal economies be eventually taken
into account. The last category is formed of the isolated
examples of “imports” that probably came from beyond the
region’s borders. Among these, the examples of fgs could be
mentioned. Further, the example of the fragment of a thin-
walled vessel made of light clay and graphite ceramics could
have played an important role.
Acknowledgments
This project was supported by GAJU 116/2013/P, by the
project “PAPAVER – Centre for human and plant studies in
Europe and Northern Africa in the postglacial period”, reg.
No. CZ.1.07/2.3.00/20.0289, co-fnanced by the European
Social Fund, and the state budget of the Czech Republic.
This article was also supported by the project Postdoc USB
(reg. no. CZ.1.07/2.3.00/30.0006) realized through the EU
Education for Competitiveness Operational Programme,
by the NEXLIZ CZ.1.07/2.3.00/30.0038 and GA CR
P405/10/0556. Special thanks are due to Jindřich Kurz, Jiří
Bumerl, Václav Holeček, Zdeněk Mužík, Zdeněk Vaněček,
and the staff of Technical Services of Písek for technical
support during the excavation of well 1. We would like to
thank archaeologists Eva Koppová and Jiří Fröhlich for their
many years of research in the historical centre of the town
and their expansion of what is known concerning water
management in the area of medieval Písek. We are grateful
to Jan Adámek for information about education in medieval
Písek and Jaroslav Frána for performing the RFA analysis.
We are also deeply grateful to Věra Klontza Jaklová, Sabine
Karg and Anna Maria Mercuri for their constructive criticism
of earlier versions of this paper.
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