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V/2/2014
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
Electric Resistivity Tomography and Magnetic Susceptibility Measurements
at the Baden Culture Site Stavenice-Úsov (Czech Republic)
Martin Moník
a*
, Jan Sedláček
a
a
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science, Palacký University in Olomouc, 17. listopadu 1192/12, 771 46 Olomouc, Czech Republic
1. Introduction
Along with tree logging on the northern slope of an
unnamed hill between the villages of Úsov and Stavenice
(Olomouc region, Czech Republic) at an altitude of 312 m
and coordinates N 49°47ʹ08.89ʺ, E 16°59ʹ31.21ʺ, a rescue
excavation took place in 2012 and 2013 (Daňhel 2014;
Daňhel in press). This site is located in the southern part
of the Hanušovice Highlands at the foot of the Mohelnice
Furrow. The bedrock at the site is formed by Culmian
greywackes, siltstones and shales (Paleozoic), covered by
Quaternary deposits, primarily loessic loam and colluvial
sediments (Koverdynský 1996).
A number of archaeological features (
i.e.
pits, structures,
hearths,
etc.
; Binford 1964) dating from the Boleráz phase
of the Baden Culture of the Middle Eneolithic (Podborský
1993) were unearthed at the site earlier (Daňhel 2014;
Daňhel in press). This would date the settlement between
3325 and 3027 cal BC (Horváth
et al.
2008). Two earthen,
and possibly the wooden ramparts on the northern (N) slope
of the hill, fnished with a stone pavement rank among
these features. The fortifcation work was also identifed
by magnetometry and aerial prospection on the mild south-
eastern (SE) slope of the hill (Daňhel 2014), where it had
been levelled by Modern Age feld tilling and made partially
visible by crop marks. Part of the same fortifcation is in all
probability distinguishable as a terracing modifcation on the
south-western (SW) slope of the same hill (Figure 1).
As the excavations of 2012 and 2013 could not cover the
entire area affected by forest clearance, a non-destructive
geophysical measurement was carried out in the unexcavated
area in June of 2013 and November of 2014 in order to
discover additional potential settlement features and verify
the spatial continuation of the rampart. Selected settlement
strata have been sampled for magnetic susceptibility
measurement to confrm or reject their anthropogenic origin
and identify potential burned sediments.
2. Methods
Out of the range of geophysical methods used in
archaeological prospection, geoelectrical methods constitute
an important tool for distinguishing archaeological features
from original, undisturbed ground. Electric resistivity
Volume V ● Issue 2/2014 ● Pages 131–138
*Corresponding author. E-mail: martin.monik@gmail.com
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 22. May 2014
Accepted: 15. December 2014
Keywords:
electric resistivity tomography
magnetic susceptibility
Baden Culture
Moravia
hillfort
Eneolithic
ABSTRACT
Electric resistivity tomography (ERT) is a well-known geophysical method for the identifcation of
archaeological features. It was applied at the Middle Eneolithic fortifed site Stavenice-Úsov in Central
Moravia (Czech Republic) to reconstruct the shape and structure of a local rampart and, if possible,
identify additional settlement features in addition to those revealed by archaeological excavation.
Simultaneously, mass magnetic susceptibility (χ
mass
) was measured in selected settlement layers and
flls in order to distinguish settlement and post-settlement strata and contexts destroyed or otherwise
infuenced by fre. The results of ERT measurement indicate that artifcial terrain modifcations
took place on the northern, south-eastern and possibly south-western slopes of the hill. Magnetic
susceptibility values indicate that the fortifcation, and in all probability also other settlement features,
had been destroyed by fre.
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tomography (ERT) is based on the detection of variations in
resistivity of rocks and subsurface materials (Kampke 1999).
The method is frequently used both in sedimentology for
differentiating high-resistivity sands and gravels from low-
resistivity loams and clays (
cf.
Matys Grygar
et al.
2013)
and in archaeology (
i.e.
Negri, Leucci 2006; Cardarelli, Di
Filippo 2009; Tsokas
et al.
2009). It is assumed that certain
archaeological features, above all stone walls and rubble,
behave as resistivity anomalies. If their resistivity values
differ from their surroundings, they can be easily detected. It
should be mentioned, moreover, that the resistivity values of
subsurface soil and colluvial sediments are affected by water
saturation (Besson
et al.
2004). During dry seasons, soil
particles contain a small amount of water and the subsurface
layers appear as highly resistive.
Measurement by ERT is relatively precise, fast and a wide
range of electrode arrangements can be selected from. Reliable
results can be expected in particular in shallow subsurface
structures. ERT measurement was realized in Stavenice-
Úsov using ARES geoelectrical system (GF Instruments,
Czech Republic) to discover the shallow subsurface
situation on the northern, south-western and south-eastern
slopes of the hill. Three ERT sections were carried out, all
localized by a GPS device Ashtech Promark 500. Preceding
the measurements, a series of electrodes connected with a
multi-core cable were introduced into the ground using the
Schlumberger array, with the electrodes spaced at 0.5 m.
This minimum spacing is necessary to acquire the high
resolution of the underlying ground. The northern and south-
western sections were made in one day in June of 2013 to
minimize the infuence of weather conditions (precipitation)
on the differences between single measurements. Although
the third, south-eastern section was made in the autumn of
2014, the resistivity values seem to be similar to those from
the other two sections. The length of the acquired sections
was 35.5 metres in all cases. The maximum depth reached
by the measurement, which depends on the length of the
section, was approximately 7 metres in the central part of
each section. Raw measurement results were processed by
the RES2INV software (Geotomo, Malaysia), using the least
squares inversion method. One of the aims of this study was
to confrm the suitability of ERT method for distinguishing
cultural sediments and anthropogenic impact into the
bedrock from the underlying, original subsoil. Furthermore,
Figure 1.
Location of the site at Úsov within the Czech Republic, position of the three ERT sections made by the authors and the probable location of the
Eneolithic fortifcation (dotted line) as indicated by aerial photography, archaeological excavation (Daňhel 2014) and terrain observation. Nos. 1–7 indicate
the fortifed settlements of the Lower to Middle Eneolithic in Central Moravia (according to Šmíd 2007): 1 – Úsov, 2 – Stínava, 3 – Otaslavice, 4 – Bílovice,
5 – Ohrozim, 6 – Rmíz, 7 – Slatinky.
0 50 km
0 120 m
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133
the results were compared with cultural features discovered
during rescue excavation.
Additionally, soil samples were acquired from the
flls of three settlement features for low feld magnetic
susceptibility measurement. Samples were acquired from
stratigraphic units (s. u.) from within two settlement features
as well as from the body of the upper rampart on the northern
slope. The samples were then oven-dried for 8 hours at a
temperature of 60°C and subsequently measured for mass
magnetic susceptibility (χ
mass
) with laboratory kappameter
KLY-4 (AGICO Ltd., Czech Republic) with a magnetic feld
intensity of 300 Am
–1
, operating frequency of 920 Hz and
sensitivity of 3×10
–8
. Mass-specifc data expressed in cm
3
g
–1
were used. Differences in the magnetic susceptibility values
of the single strata often reveal varying settlement intensity in
different archaeological features. In archaeological features
occupied at a certain moment, magnetic grains concentrate
as a result of fring of sediments and objects (Marwick 2005)
so that magnetic susceptibility values tend to be elevated.
3. Investigation results
3.1 ERT measurement
“Section 1”, carried out on the northern slope of the hill 10 m
east of the excavated archaeological probe (Daňhel 2014),
revealed the presence of three principal resistivity units.
The measured resistivity values vary in the range of 10–400
Ωm. The surface unit extending to a depth of about 50 cm is
characterized by high resistivity of between 100–300 Ωm, in
the lower end of the section even 400 Ωm. The underlying
unit consists of a homogenous resistivity domain with
extremely low resistivity values (ca 10–40 Ωm), this horizon
has a thickness of 1–3 metres. The lowermost layer reveals
medium to high resistivity values (ca 100–400 Ωm) and is
more heterogeneous. This may be a consequence of different
rock types of Culmian facies (Figure 2). The most interesting
part lies between 20 and 26 metres of the section where the
lower high-resistivity layer shows two step-like features,
located about 1 m under the present surface, of possibly an
anthropogenic origin.
“Section 2” on the steep SW slope of the hill showed a
pattern similar to Section 1, but there is a greater range in
resistivity values from 20 to 600 Ωm. The surface layers
are highly resistive (300–600 Ωm) which may be caused by
an admixture of rock debris in the colluvial sediments. The
underlying unit reveals similar resistivity values as in the
frst section, but the thickness of this unit is lower (about
1 m) and indicates resistivity values of between 20–55 Ωm.
The bottom high resistivity unit lays only about 1–1.5 metres
below the surface (Figure 3). The resistivity values here,
however, are highly variable and vary between 50 and
500 Ωm. Terrain modifcation between 24 and 32 m of the
section is not supported by rescue excavation, is less clear
than in Section 1 but still distinctive and plainly visible with
the naked eye.
As for “Section 3” on the mild SE slope, it was positioned
so as to cut through three crop-mark lines, possibly
indicating the lines of prehistoric fortifcation (Figure 1;
cf.
Daňhel 2014). The overall resistivity values measured here
were similar to those in sections 1 and 2, within a range
of 18 to 350 Ωm (Figure 4). The resistivity of the upper
layers (between 0–3 metres of thickness) is highly variable
(18–350 Ωm), whereas the underlying layer, evidenced
between 12 and 24 m of the section, is more homogeneous
(150–300 Ωm). The upper part is dotted with high-resistivity
anomalies, the most distinguished between 1 and 10 and then
between 25 and 30 metres of the section. In the frst case,
lower on the slope, the resistivity values reached a maximum
of about 350 Ωm, whereas in the second case the values were
slightly lower, of about 300 Ωm at most. A low resistivity
feature appeared at 24 metres of the section, whereas there
was a mix of higher and lower resistivity features between
11–21.5 metres.
Figure 2.
ERT Section 1 on the northern slope of the hill at Stavenice-Úsov.
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3.2 Magnetic susceptibility measurement
Mass-specifc magnetic susceptibility (χ
mass
) of different strata
and settlement flls was measured in three archaeological
features: in the settlement feature (hut?) n. 13, in the sequence
of strata in square n. 23 and in the earthen rampart on the
N slope. Lithologically, light to medium brown and yellow
sandy soils prevail in the partially cemented inflls. The
magnetic susceptibility values are shown in the pictures with
a diagram on the right side (Figure 5). A description of the
different layers is presented in Table 1. In the feature n. 13,
high χ
mass
values were observed in layers nos. 161 and 159.
The remaining layers (nos. 136, 139, 148, 160) reveal lower
χ
mass
values of between 9.59×10
–10
and 4.83×10
–9
cm
3
g
–1
.
Magnetic susceptibility measurement in square n. 23 has
shown that both the undisturbed soil (n. 101) and the most
cultural and post-settlement layers have relatively low χ
mass
values of between 7.19×10
–10
and 1.04×10
–8
cm
3
g
–1
. The
exception is layer n. 235 with the χ
mass
value of 5.56486×10
–7
cm
3
g
–1
.
The values of magnetic susceptibility of the flls of the
rampart are also elevated (2.15×10
–7
–4.74×10
–7
cm
3
g
–1
),
similar to the burned layer n. 235 from square n. 23.
4. Discussion
ERT measurements identifed three principal electric
resistivity layers in both Section 1 and Section 2, one at
a depth of about 0–0.5 m below the present-day surface,
another at a depth of 0.5–3 metres and the last one below
Figure 3.
ERT Section 2 on the south-western slope of the hill at Stavenice-Úsov.
Figure 4.
ERT Section 3 on the south-eastern slope of the hill at Stavenice-Úsov.
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Table 1.
Characteristics of the layers with the measured magnetic susceptibility (χ
mass
) values.
Stratigraphic unitDescriptionMagnetic susceptibility
Square n. 23
s.u. 141medium brown, frm, sandy soil, with burnt clay 3.00786×10
–09
SI
s.u. 164
dark greyish red, loose, sandy soil, with burnt clay
1.04229×10
–08
SI
s.u. 233
light greyish brown, loose, sand, with burnt clay
3.42761×10
–09
SI
s.u. 234dark brownish grey, frm, sandy soil1.15391×10
–09
SI
s.u. 235
dark red orange, cemented, sandy soil
5.56486×10
–07
SI
s.u. 101light brownish yellow, frm, loessic soil7.19280×10
–10
SI
Square n. 15,
feature n. 13
s.u. 159middle brown, frm, sandy soil, with burnt clay, carbons, pottery6.11032×10
–07
SI
s.u. 136light brown, frm, sandy soil, with burnt clay, pottery, carbons, stones1.67803×10
–09
SI
s.u. 160middle greyish brown, frm, sandy soil, with burnt clay4.83082×10
–09
SI
s.u. 161
light brown, compact, stones up to 3 cm in size, with soil
6.24434×10
–07
SI
s.u. 139light grey, frm, clayey soil, with patches of loessic soil, carbons, stones9.59419×10
–10
SI
s.u. 148middle to light brown, frm, clayey soil, with patches of loessic soil1.79463×10
–09
SI
Rampart
s.u. 900stone blocks up to 0.5 m in size, cemented with soil2.39415×10
–07
SI
s.u. 252
dark yellow, cemented, sandy soil
4.73582×10
–07
SI
s.u. 118a
middle yellow, cemented, sandy soil
3.52832×10
–07
SI
s.u. 118b
middle yellow, cemented, sandy soil
2.89938×10
–07
SI
s.u. 101light brownish yellow, frm, loessic soil2.15210×10
–07
SI
Figure 5.
Archaeological sections and
magnetic susceptibility (χ
mass
) values of the
sampled layers.
this level. It seems probable that the lowermost unit, with
resistivity values between 100–400 Ωm, can be interpreted
as Culmian siltstones, shales and greywackes in accordance
with the geological map whereas its low-resistivity (ca
10–40 Ωm) cover is made up of loam with a loess component
which covers most of the hill (Koverdynský 1996) and which
made up the lowermost stratigraphic unit for most of the
unearthed archaeological features (Daňhel 2014). It is well
known that increased conductivity (low resistivity) is typical
for loessic sediments (Rinaldi, Cuestas 2002). The top level
is in all probability partially formed by stone rubble as it is
again more resistive. Values of around 100 Ωm are probably
related to soil whereas rubble and pit flls are more resistive
(200 Ωm).
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The step-like feature in the northern, lower part of Section 1
(between 20.5 and 25.5 metres) is in all probability of
anthropogenic origin. It could be identical with the structure
identifed by archaeological excavation some 10 metres to the
west (Figure 5, bottom) and can be interpreted as a remnant
of the upper fortifcation rampart and berm (see below for
analogies), with the rampart body fallen over the berm
following the downfall of the settlement. At 25.5–26 metres,
there is another vertical step, possibly a fortifcation ditch
placed in front of the rampart (Figure 2). The northernmost
part of the Section 1 in all probability reached part of
the lower rampart as well, identifed by archaeological
excavation in 2013 (Daňhel, in press), indicating that at least
two lines of defensive ramparts were constructed in Úsov.
Resistivity values of the
in situ
loam higher on the
slope and the redeposited loam, which forms the body of
the Eneolithic rampart (Daňhel 2014) do not differ. As the
magnetic susceptibility values (and archaeological probe
situated 10 m to the west) also indicate the anthropogenic
origin of the rampart (see below), it has to be conjectured
that the ERT method fails, in this case, to distinguish between
two different kinds of sediments,
i. e.
a slope sediment and
an artifcial infll. This is probably due to post-depositional
processes which lead to similar water saturation, and thus
conductivity, of both sediment types.
Remnants of a stone pavement discovered by archaeological
excavation on the northern slope (Daňhel 2014) are also
evident in the ERT Section 1 (Figure 2). This structure
forms a sharp resistivity anomaly (about 400 Ωm) and can
be observed at about 22 m of the section. The pavement
probably topped the rampart to form some kind of pathway.
There is also a step-like feature in the south-western ERT
Section 2 (Figure 3), between 24 and 30 metres. Although its
artifciality is not as clear as in the case of the northern slope
and its age is uncertain as no excavation was performed here,
it in all likelihood formed part of the Eneolithic fortifcation
as well as stretching over a signifcant part of the SW slope
and seemed to connect with the fortifcation lines on both the
N and SE slopes (see below).
ERT Section 3 in all probability detected three fortifcation
lines on the SE slope of the hill, indicated earlier by
aerial photography (Figure 1). The outermost line of the
fortifcation seems to have been formed by a ditch and a
rampart (1–10 m of the section). The former had been flled
with a high-resistivity material, possibly stone rubble, in its
lower part (between 1–5.5 metres of the section; Figure 4).
It is possible that stone wall may have formed part of the
Eneolithic rampart and collapsed into the ditch at a later
point. The maximum depth of the ditch is 2 metres below the
present-day surface although Modern-Age tillage may have
made it signifcantly shallower than it originally was.
The low resistivity (46–100 Ωm) anomaly between 11 and
17.5 metres in all probability represents another ditch, part
of a second fortifcation line. Its depth is about 2 m again.
The anomaly immediately next to it (between 17.5 and
21.5 metres of the section) with slightly higher resistivity
values (up to about 200 Ωm) probably represents a second
rampart. It would seem that, similarly to the situation on the
northern slope, two fortifcation lines had been constructed
on the SE slope (
cf.
Daňhel, in press).
The third anomaly, situated higher on the slope between
25 and 30 metres of Section 3, is flled with high-resistivity
(up to 300 Ωm) material in its lower part whereas the
upper part of the fll is low resistive (<50 Ωm). The most
probable interpretation of this feature is a third fortifcation
ditch running in N-S direction as indicated by crop marks
(Figure 1). This ditch is not parallel to the two former ones
so that their contemporaneity is less certain. It should be
emphasized that no data are available for the dating of these
three fortifcation lines although the Middle Eneolithic age
of at least the two outer lines is the most plausible here as
they connect well with the fortifcation systems on the N and
SW slopes. Lastly, the low-resistivity anomaly at 24 m of
Section 3 is best interpreted as the natural loamy sediment
cover, unearthed in several archaeological probes on the
northern slope as well.
As for the magnetic susceptibility measurement, the χ
mass
values of undisturbed natural sediments seem to be within the
order of ×
–10
or ×
–9
SI units. Although anthropogenic strata do
not necessarily have higher χ
mass
values, only three types of
deposits on the site have shown positive anomalies. First are
flls and strata of a reddish color, in all probability burnt by
intensive fre (s. u. 159 and 235) as indicated by burnt clays
and carbons. Second are two stratigraphic units in settlement
feature n. 13, namely gravelly layer n. 161 below a dark
settlement horizon (n. 160), the former probably the remnant
of a hearth. Magnetically highly susceptible unit n. 159
then probably dates back to the post-settlement period and
may have originated during a forest fre. Lastly, there is the
rampart body where all the sampled stratigraphic units show
elevated χ
mass
values. These high magnetic susceptibility
values indicate that the rampart was probably subject to
fre. It is well known that clay minerals in the ground, when
heated above 250°C (easily reached by a combustion of
organic material), may transform into ferrimagnetic minerals
(Kapper
et al.
2014), mainly magnetite and maghemite.
The process or reasons behind the burning of the
fortifcation rampart are unclear although two hypotheses
seem the most probable:
Burning of the fortifcation took place along with the
violent destruction and downfall of the settlement. In this
(and the latter) case, a certain or even a signifcant part of the
fortifcation must have been constructed of wood.
Burning of the rampart body took place along with its
construction in order to somehow improve its defensive
properties.
The latter hypotheses was also held for certain Dacian
(4
th
–3
rd
century BC) fortifcations in SW Romania, where,
however, the burning had in all probability taken place
elsewhere in order to manufacture adobe, later used for the
construction of the fortifcation (Zirra 2011). The variety in
the 2
nd
hypothesis would explain the absence of charcoals in
the fortifcation body in Úsov but is otherwise improbable
as no adobe was used here. The frst hypothesis is thus more
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Electric Resistivity Tomography and Magnetic Susceptibility Measurements at the Baden Culture Site Stavenice-Úsov (Czech Republic)
137
plausible as the burning of loessic loam probably would not
have improved the properties of the fortifcation in any way.
The absence of charcoals in the body of the rampart may be
best explained by post-depositional processes,
e.g.
washing
out or mechanical destruction/slope redeposition of organic
material.
The presence of defensive ditches (verifed meanwhile by
archaeological excavation on the N slope; Daňhel 2014) and
a probable wooden palisade allows us to look for analogies
in other similarly dated hillforts in Central Moravia. One
of them is the Rmíz hillfort (Figure 1) of both the Funnel
Beaker Culture and Baden Culture (Šmíd 2007), 22 km to the
SSE, where an originally stone fortifcation, supplemented
by a fortifcation ditch, was gradually substituted by wooden
components in the course of the Lower to Middle Eneolithic
(
i.e.
3500–2600 BC; Podborský 2006). One of the Funnel
Beaker Culture defensive walls in Rmíz was accompanied
by a berm and a ditch, a combination quite possible on the
northern slope at Úsov as well.
Similarly to Rmíz, several fortifcation lines were
discovered by both archaeological excavations, magnetometry
(Daňhel 2014), on the basis of crop marks, and now through
ERT at the Stavenice-Úsov hillfort. On the N and SE slope
there seems to have been at least two parallel fortifcation
lines constructed, formed by two ramparts with stone
elements and one (N) or two (SE) fortifcation ditches. The
probable fortifcation works had taken place on the SW slope
as well, although here no defensive ditch was evidenced. If
all these fortifcation works were contemporaneous, which
seems probable, they encircled the top of the hill where the
Eneolithic settlement was concentrated (Daňhel 2014).
Apart from Úsov and Rmíz, more Lower to Middle
Eneolithic fortifed sites in Central Moravia are known
from Bílovice, Ohrozim, Otaslavice, Slatinky and Stínava
(Šmíd 2007; see Figure 1), the two former ones dating from
the same period as the Stavenice-Úsov hillfort,
i.e.
the end of
the Funnel Beaker Culture and the beginnings of the Baden
Culture from the turn of the Lower/Middle Eneolithic. The
settlement in Úsov, in any case, indicates that the end of such
hillforts may have been violent as indicated by the probable
burning of the fortifcation ramparts.
5. Conclusion
Geophysical prospection at the Stavenice-Úsov Middle
Eneolithic site has revealed a number of artifcial terrain
modifcations, the most signifcant of them encountered
on the northern slope of the hill. Based on the ERT
measurement, terrain levelling before the heaping of the
fortifcation rampart in the Eneolithic disturbed the local
strata up to a depth of 2 metres so that overlying sediments
were most likely redeposited. Similarly, signifcant terrain
modifcations took place on the SE slope of the same hill
where three probable defensive ditches were identifed by
ERT. Artifcial terrain modifcations are less pronounced on
the SW slope although even here prehistoric terrain levelling
cannot be excluded. It seems probable that a signifcant part
of the hillfort was encircled by a system of ditch-and-rampart
defensive lines.
Magnetic susceptibility positive anomalies were identifed
both higher on the northern slope in the burnt flls of the
settlement pits and in the rampart body, so that the latter
was probably destroyed by fre. This would indicate that a
wooden construction originally formed part of the Eneolithic
fortifcation.
The investigation has revealed the potential of both ERT
and magnetic susceptibility measurement in archaeological
research. The advantage of the former lies in its swiftness,
easy use and low cost in comparison with archaeological
excavation whereas the latter proved useful for the
identifcation of cultural, particularly burnt, stratigraphic
units.
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