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V/2/2014
INTERDISCIPLINARIA ARCHAEOLOGICA
NATURAL SCIENCES IN ARCHAEOLOGY
homepage: http://www.iansa.eu
Short Contribution: Severe Enamel Defects and Malformations of Canines
in Pre-Historic and Historic Domestic Pigs from Bohemia
Wolf-Rüdiger Teegen
a
, René Kyselý
b*
a
Institut für Vor- und Frühgeschichtliche Archäologie und Provinzialrömische Archäologie & ArchaeoBioCenter, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität,
Geschwister-Scholl-Platz 1, 80539 München, Germany
b
Institute of Archaeology of the Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, v. v. i., Letenská 4, 118 00, Prague, Czech Republic
1. Introduction
Pig teeth are a grateful object for studying malformations
as well as enamel or dentine defects in veterinary anatomy
and pathology as well as in osteoarchaeology. This feld
of study has been more or less neglected, however, in
osteoarchaeology and paleopathology. Nevertheless, there
are classic observations on more recent fnds which Frank
Colyer collected in the frst decades of the 20
th
century
(Colyer 1936). Fortunately, an updated edition of his book
was published by A. E. W. Miles and Caroline Grigson in
1990. Only since the turn of the Millennium, has interested
turned toward enamel defects of pig teeth, dealing mostly,
however, with premolars and molars (
e.g.
Dobney, Ervynck
1998; 2000; 2002; Teegen, Wussow 2000; Teegen 2005;
2006; 2013; Magnell, Carter 2007; Pigière 2009).
The canines of the male pig – either of the wild (
Sus
scrofa
) or the domestic form (
Sus scrofa
f.
domestica
) –
are of particular interest. These canines are continuously
growing (elodont) and are rootless (aradicular hypsodont).
They therefore continue growing until the individual dies.
The elodont canines have an extended pulp with a rich blood
supply. There are enough cells in this and the adjacent areas
continually reproducing themselves. There is consequently
a constant stream of cells present, ready to heal damaged
tissue in the canine area (Miles, Grigson 1990, 404). This
means that the dentine cells of the canines of male pigs have
a high repair potential. This is quite different with the female
pigs (Figure 6) where the canines are not continuously
growing.
For the wild boar, tusk anomalies – mainly of the lower
canines – are sometimes described in veterinary or wildlife
literature (
e.g.
Palášthy, Palášthy 1991; Kierdorf, Rühe 2002;
Kierdorf, Kierdorf 2003; Kierdorf
et al.
2004; Konjević
et al.
2004; 2006). This is due to the fact that (mainly the lower)
tusks are valuable trophies for hunters. Alterations of the
maxillary canines are reported less (
e.g.
Konjević
et al.
2004).
Alterations of the canines of male domestic pigs have
gained much less attention then wild boars. This is the case
both for recent as well as archaeological specimens. This is
also valid for enamel hypoplasia which can often be observed
Volume V ● Issue 2/2014 ● Pages 139–146
*Corresponding author. E-mail: kysely@arup.cas.cz
ARTICLE INFO
Article history:
Received: 7. November 2014
Accepted: 23. December 2014
Keywords:
domestic pig (
Sus scrofa
f.
domestica
)
enamel defect
enamel and root hypoplasia
Iron Age (La Tène period)
Middle Ages
ABSTRACT
In this paper four cases of severe enamel and dentine defects in the upper canines of male domestic
pigs (
Sus scrofa
f.
domestica
) from the Iron Age and medieval sites in Bohemia (Czech Republic) are
presented. Such severe defects observed in the osteoarchaeological record are a fairly rare condition.
They are in all likelihood the result of intra and extra alveolar traumas. In two cases the growing area
was completely or partially divided, probably due to a traumatic incidence. The origin of the traumatic
insults could be intra- or inter-species fghts, search for food or other accidents. Human maltreatment
could also not be excluded. A twisted canine was observed in one case. A description of an anomaly on
one lower female pig canine is also included.
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in canines (
cf.
Teegen 2013, 60–61), as they continue to
receive less attention than molars or premolars.
The average growth rates (in mm/month) for pig canines
are also not all that well known. An average monthly growth
of approx. 2 mm can be assumed for wild boars above
20 months of age from the southern Ukraine (Woloch 2002,
188, Figure 2). It could be similar or less, probably between
1 mm and 2 mm/month, for domestic pigs.
Despite modifcations on bovine incisives having been
recently described by Kyselý (2007; 2009; 2012) and certain
other dental deformations from the Czech territory having
been mentioned occasionally, there is no paper specialised
Table 1.
Overview of the analysed fnds. Measurements in mm. Abbreviations: GE = growing end (≈EDJ = Enamel-Dentine-Junction), ED = enamel defect.
Site1: Radovesice2: Lovosice
– Resslova ulice
3a: Stará Boleslav3b: Stará Boleslav4: Prague
– Vojanovy sady
Site specifcation
Radovesice 23,
Lukovský potok,
feat. 107/72
trench 2, feat. 8,
layer 0–10 cm
trench LXX,
square 102,
layer 21225
trench XVIII,
layer 6367
layer A
Settlement
description
early La Tène
(A-B1) settlement
middle La Tène
(C) settlement
medieval stronghold
(bailey)
medieval stronghold
(moat)
medieval town
Archaeological
dating
5
th
– beginning
of the 4
th
cent. BC
3
rd
–2
nd
cent. BC
end of the 9
th
– turn
of 13
th
cent. AD
end of the 9
th
– turn
of 12
th
cent. AD
2
nd
half of the 13
th
cent. AD
Taxonomic statusdomesticdomesticdomesticdomesticdomestic
Toothleft upper canine
right upper canine
in its alveolus
left upper canineleft lower canineright upper canine
Sexmalemalemalefemalemale
Age at deathadult (> 18 months)
adult (approx.
18–24 months)
adult (older?)
(> 18 months)
adult
subadult/adult
(> 15 months)
Length41.644.2
61.838.6
Length (outer arch)52.089.041.0
Length (inner arch)41.068.035.0
Minimum diameter
at GE
8.3
12.210.910.9
Maximum diameter
at EDJ
14.4
16.3
14.318.0
Height of ED above
GE
31.7
not determinednot determined
19.0–14.1
Breadth of the defect
13.23.2 × 4.7 × 1.0
Figure23–45
6
7
Table 2.
Lovosice – Resslova ulice (nr. 2). Measurements (in mm) of the maxilla. Values in brackets = approximate.
M1-M3 P1-M3P1-P4P2-M3 P2-P4 Length of M3Breadth of M3Max. diameter of canine alveolus
(60.9)(100.8)40.2
(93.8)33.3
30.717.321.7
0 200 km
Figure 1.
Map of the Czech Republic with
the sites:1 – Radovesice, 2 – Lovosice, 3 –
Stará Boleslav, 4 – Praha (Prague). Map by
R. Kyselý.
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on animal tooth pathologies in Czech archaeozoological
literature. The presented report can therefore be considered
a pilot case.
2. Materials and Methods
In this short contribution we would like to present fve cases of
enamel defects on pig canines originating from archaeological
contexts in Bohemia (Czech Republic; Figure 1). Each case
originates from the La Tène sites Radovesice and Lovosice –
Resslova ulice. The other ones are Medieval and come from
Prague – Vojanovy sady and from Stará Boleslav.
All the fnds were dated by co-found artefacts (mainly
pottery) with the help of the evidence of the stratigraphic
situation (see the cited archaeological literature); radiocarbon
dating was not directly applied. It is well known that
stratigraphic contaminations can play a role in poly-cultural
archaeological situations. The evidence indicates that it is
not an issue in our cases. Despite certain older settlement
layers (11
th
to the frst half of the 13
th
century) having been
detected in the stratigraphical set at Prague – Vojanovy sady,
layer “A” only represents refuse from the second half of the
13
th
century, therefore contamination is not all that probable.
Other fnds described here are more reliable and narrowly
dated (Table 1).
Sex was determined using the morphology of the
canines. The age determination of pig canines is only
quite approximative (Habermehl 1975). For wild boars
the length of the whetting surface can be an age indicator
(Wagenknecht 1979; Habermehl 1985).
The defnitions of the measurements follow von den
Driesch (1976). The main reference point for all of the other
measurements is the Enamel-Dentine-Junction (EDJ). In
the canines of males there is only a small seam of dentine
without enamel, generally less than 5–10 mm.
The pathological changes in the maxillary canines were
classifed according to Palášthy and Palášthy (1991), Teegen
(2004), Konjević
et al.
(2004) and Konjević (2006).
3. Results
The canines belong – with one exception – to male domestic
pigs. In four out of fve cases the canines of the upper jaws
are present (Table 1). In one case (nr. 3b), the lower canine
of a female domestic pig is present. All the individuals were
at least 15 months old (Table 1).
Description of the fnds
(sorted in chronological order):
Site 1: Radovesice (distr. Litoměřice):
The canine discussed here (Table 1; Figure 2) was found
in feature 107/72 of the Iron Age village Radovesice 23,
Lukovský potok, distr. Litoměřice (Bohemia). The
excavation in 1972 was led by J. Waldhauser. The
archaeological description was published by Waldhauser
(1993), the archaeozoological report was published by Peške
(1993). The feature belongs to the settlement horizon II–III
(IIB) which is dated to La Tène A-B1 (5
th
– beginning of
4
th
century BC).
The left upper canine of an adult male domestic pig
(>18 months) is completely preserved (Figure 2). The tip
is abraded or broken. The complete tooth crown is torn at
approx. 20°. The enamel layer is only partially present.
The enamel formation at the tip of the canine is regular.
A deep sulcus with a width of about 4 mm is approximately
Figure 2.
Radovesice (Bohemia), male domestic pig, left upper canine (see Table 1 for details). 1 – Buccal view. 2 – Disto-palatinal view. 3 Distal view.
4 – Mesio-palatinal view. Large arrow heads: separated growing areas, small arrow heads: exostoses, arrow: the distal rims of the defect are clearly marked
and are forming ridges. Scale = 1 cm. Photo: W.-R. Teegen.
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31.7 mm (linear distance) resp. 35.0 mm (curvature) above
the Enamel-Dentine-Junction (EDJ) (Figure 2). This sulcus is
present on the mesial, palatinal and distal side of the canine.
Only the buccal part shows little alterations. It is clearly visible
here, however, that the crown of this canine is torn (Figure 2.1).
If we assume a monthly growth rate of 1–2 mm, than the defect
developed between 17 and 35 months prior to death.
The disto-palatinal area of the canine reveals a quite
abnormal surface. There are holes and the enamel layer is
mostly missing. This defect has an extension of approx.
13.2 × 31.7 (linear distance) resp. 35.0 mm (curvature).
The mesial and distal rims of the defect are clearly marked
and form ridges. These defect walls contain several bubble
formed structures of a lighter colour. They in all likelihood
consist of enamel pearls. One rim measures 2.2 × 14.0 mm
with a height of approx. 2 mm. The defect itself is without
enamel. It only consists of dentine which shows three larger
holes with an irregular surface (Figure 2). The opposite
rim is more irregular; the basal is an irregular exostotic
formation of 3.9 × 6.0 × 4.0 mm dentine extension. It is
located 5 mm above the EDJ. The enamel layer runs in the
regular area to the end of the tooth to the EDJ.
Of particular interest is the fact that there are two separate
growing ends of the upper canine (Figures 2.1 and 2.2, large
arrow heads).
Site 2: Lovosice – Resslova ulice (distr. Litoměřice):
The excavation of 1986 was directed by V. Salač and
partly published in 1990 (Salač 1990). The left maxillary
fragment with the canine of a male domestic pig (inv. no.
86/2/8/341/3) was found in the middle La Tène settlement
phase in trench 2, feature 8, 0–10 cm below the top of the
feature (Table 1). It dates to the 3
rd
–2
nd
century BC. The
archaeozoological material was studied by R. Kyselý (2001)
and is still unpublished.
The pathologically altered canine was still in its alveolus
in a fragment of the left maxilla (Figure 3.1). The premolars
1–4 and molars 2 and 3 are also present. Their degree of
abrasion is low (premolars visible on Figure 3.2). It belongs
to an adult individual of approx. 20–26 months of age
1
. The
metric data can be found in Table 2.
There is a defect running perpendicular to the axis on the
distal part of the canine. It is located approx. 10 mm from
the top of the crown (Figure 4.1). Below this defect a furrow
begins which runs to the growing end. There is also an ara of
about 10.2 ×19.9 mm distally which shows irregular dentine
and enamel formation. Below the defect on the distal side
there are also irregularities in the enamel formation on the
palatinal part of the canine (Figure 4.2).
The growing end is partially compressed and exhibits
distally a deep longitudinal furrow which nearly separates it
(Figure 4.1). There is some new dentine formation inside the
growing end, attached to the furrow (Figure 4.1).
1
Molar 2 has dentine abraded (
cf.
Grant’s 1982 stage “e–f”); molar 3 only
has enamel abraded (Grant’s 1982 stage “a”).
Figure 3.
Lovosice – Resslova ulice (Bohemia), male domestic pig, right maxilla with crowding of the pre-molars P1-4 and enamel and dentine defects of
the right upper canine (see Table 1 and 2 for details). 1 – Lateral view. The arrows indicate deposits of white dental calculus. The dehiscence of the alveolar
rim at the eroded mesio-buccal root and fenestration of the disto-buccal root of P4. 2 – Occlusal view is visible. Large arrow: fracture line, arrow head: new
dentine formation, small arrow: crowding. Scale = 1 cm. Photo: R. Kyselý/W.-R. Teegen.
Figure 4.
Lovosice – Resslova ulice (Bohemia), male domestic pig, right
upper canine with enamel defects. 1 – Disto-buccal view. 2 – Palatinal view.
Scale = 1 cm. Photo: R. Kyselý.
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There is a wedge-like defect on both palatinal roots of
premolar 1 below the EDJ (Figure 3.2). A small deposit of
white coloured dental calculus is present on the 2
nd
and 4
th
upper right premolars (Figure 3.1 – arrows). There is also a
crowding of the left upper premolars P1-4.
The described case is a single strong pathology observed
among 39 male upper canines existing in the assemblage
from Lovosice – Resslova ulice.
Site 3: Stará Boleslav (distr. Prague – východ):
The excavation of the former medieval stronghold in
1996 was directed by I. Boháčová and published in 2003
(Boháčová 2003). The mammal bones analysis was published
by Kyselý (2003). Two samples (Table 1) from this site are
presented here.
Case 3a:
The maxillary canine of a male domestic pig
(inv. no. 5617) was found in the bailey of the stronghold
(trench LXX, square 102, layer 21225) and is dated between
the end of the 9
th
and the turn of the 13
th
cent. The canine
shows a well healed fracture with some new formation of
dentine on the buccal aspect (Figure 5.1). There is also some
new dentine formation of the palatinal side (Figure 5.2,
medium arrow head). During the growth of the canine at
least two linear enamel hypoplasias developed (Figure 5,
small arrow heads). Their distance is approximately 6.5 mm.
This means they could probably have developed after an
interval between 3 and 6 months. The described case is a
single strong pathology observed among 38 male upper
canines existing in the assemblage from Stará Boleslav.
Case 3b:
The lower left canine of an adult female pig (inv.
no. 2946, Figure 6) comes from a moat at the stronghold
(from layer 6367, trench XVIII) and is dated between the
end of the 9
th
and the turn of the 13
th
cent. There is a spherical
formation with the dimensions of 3.2 × 4.7 × 1.0 mm at
approximately the EDJ. It is covered with tooth cementum.
It could consequently not be clearly determined whether it
is “enamel pearl” or a malformation of dentine (“dentine
pearl”). It probably developed around the end of the crown
formation. This abnormality was observed among 42 female
lower canines existing in the assemblage from Stará Boleslav.
Figure 5.
Stará Boleslav (Bohemia), male domestic pig, left upper canine
of a subadult individual, well-healed fracture, dentine repair, enamel
hyoplasias (see Table 1 for details). 1 – Distal view. 2 – Palatinal view.
Large arrow head: fracture line, medium arrow head: new dentine formation,
small arrow heads: enamel hypoplasia, arrow: pseudo-pathology (missing
enamel). Scale = 1 cm. Photo: R. Kyselý/W.-R. Teegen.
Figure 6.
Stará Boleslav (Bohemia), female
domestic pig, left lower canine of an adult
individual with a dentine (?) pearl on the
root near the dento-enamel junction (see
Table 1 for details). 1 – Lateral view. 2 –
Lingual view. 3 – Close-up. Scale = 1 cm.
Photo: W.-R. Teegen.
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Site 4: Prague – Vojanovy sady (distr. Prague):
The excavation of 1974 was directed by L. Hrdlička
(Hrdlička 1977; 1991). The canine (inv. no. VS-13/74) was
found in layer A, consisting of refuse outside the wall, and is
dated to the second half of the 13
th
cent. The archaeozoological
material was studied by L. Peške (1976), but has remained
unpublished.
The right upper canine of an adult male domestic pig is
completely preserved (Table 1, Figure 7). Its tip is broken/
abraded, the enamel is well developed, showing small
ridges in the longitudinal direction. There is a deep sulcus,
running from the mesial via the palatinal to the distal part
of the canine, at a height of approximately 14.1–19.0 mm
above the growing end of the canine. The maximal breadth
of the sulcus is 5.4 mm. It is approximately 0.8 mm deep on
both sides, 1.7 mm in all. The superior margin of the sulcus
is the fracture line. A fairly massive dentine formation is
located between the enamel in the sulcus (Figure 7.1). There
is a layer of repaired dentine on the inferior margin of the
enamel defect (Figure 7). At least one exostotic new dentine
formation is present (Figure 7.3).
4. Discussion
Four out of the fve canines (nr. 1, 2, 3a and 4) presented
here show severe enamel and dental defects (Figures 2, 3,
4, 5, 7). All these four canines demonstrate a wedge-like
defect on their palatinal surface, approximately at the height
of the alveolar margin. Furthermore, the canine nr. 1 from
Radovesice shows an angular form (Figure 2.4).
The severe enamel defect is the most important observed
feature. It should be noted that all the canines manifest quite
a normal enamel formation inferior and superior of the
defect. The defect itself is located on the mesial, palatinal
and distal side and results in a deep and wide sulcus and a
wedge-like structure.
Wedge-like defects are quite typical for intravital fractures
(
cf.
Miles, Grigson 1990, 404–405, Figure 19.15; Palášthy,
Palášthy 1991, 195–198; Konjević
et al.
2006, Figure 3). We
can therefore conclude that in our cases the enamel defects
had a traumatic origin. Canine fractures are not unusual
in wild or domestic pigs, in particular males. The canine
protrudes from the mouth cavity. It can consequently be
easily affected by external forces. These can be the results
of intra-or inter-species fghts or other accidents,
e.g.
during
food search (Konjević
et al.
2006, S93 with ref.) or in a
barn. Amongst domestic pigs, maltreatment can also not be
excluded.
Several features should be discussed beginning with the tip
of the crown. All the maxillary canines presented here reveal
a splintered tip. The colour and nature of the tips indicate
an ancient origin (and not recent causation,
e.g.
during
excavation). This alteration could be caused by injuring the
canine perimortally.
Canine nr. 1 from Radovesice only shows a more or less
normal surface formation on the buccal and mesial facies.
No enamel is present at the disto-palatinal side. The surface
is also quite irregular and cavernous (Figure 2). The enamel
formation stopped here completely. There is only irregular
enamel formation in the form of enamel pearls at the margins
of the defect (Figure 2).
The layer of dentine which covers the inferior enamel
margin of the defect on canine nr. 4 from Prague – Vojanovy
sady (Figure 7) is a good indicator of the presence of a
fracture. A stratigraphy is present here where the secondary or
Figure 7.
Prague – Vojanovy sady (Bohemia), male domestic pig, right upper canine with an enamel and a dentine defect (see Table 1 for details). 1 – Buccal
view. 2 – Bucco-distal view. 3 – Disto-buccal view. 4 – Palatinal view. Scale = 1 cm. Photo: W.-R. Teegen.
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tertiary repair dentine covers the enamel. It is not quite clear
whether the defect was localized in the alveolus or above
the alveolar rim. A very slight exostotic dentine formation,
which runs over the enamel, is also present in canine nr. 3a
from Stará Boleslav (Figure 5.2).
The disto-palatinal part of the right upper canine nr. 2 from
Lovosice – Resslova ulice is surrounded from the alveolar rim
(see Figure 3.2, arrow). This fts nicely and is an indication
that this new formed dentine and enamel developed inside
the alveolus. It seems likely that the defect on the distal side
below the tip developed intra-alveolar, which is interesting if
we consider a traumatic causation.
Two canines exhibit changes in the growing ends. The
growing end of the left upper canine from Radovesice is
separated (Figure 2.1 and 2.2). There are consequently two
growing ends present. They resemble a similar case in a
recent wild boar from Croatia (Konjević
et al.
2004, 405,
Figure 2), in which case, an intra-alveolar infraction was
probably the cause. As mentioned above, a traumatic origin
for the defect also seems quite probable in our case. The
second canine comes from Lovosice – Resslova ulice. Here
a deep furrow is present which nearly separates the growing
end (Figure 4.1). As described above, the furrow is probably
the result of a traumatic impact on the growing canine.
The canine from Radovesice is somewhat twisted
(Figure 2). A recent tusk of a wild boar from Slovakia also
exhibits a twist (Konjević
et al.
2006, S95, Figure 1.A).
Twisting can be the result of duplication (Konjević
et al.
2006, S96, Figure 4) when one canine grows against the other
one. Twisting occurs not only in boars but also in other tusk
bearing animals such as elephants (Miles, Grigson 1990).
The defects shown here are severe enamel defects but not
severe enamel hypoplasias. The only enamel hypoplastic
defects can be seen on Figure 5 (small arrow heads),
depicting the canine from Stará Boleslav. Here at least two
hypoplasias on the palatinal side are present.
Enamel hypoplasias on the canines can often be observed
in wild and domestic pigs. They are, however, less studied in
the paleopathological literature. It can be sometimes diffcult
to distinguish between normal enamel formation and slight
hypoplasias.
5. Conclusion
Enamel defects such as hypoplasias on the canines of male
pigs – either domestic or wild – are an extremely interesting
phenomenon from a biological point of view. Due to the
continuous growth of male canines until its bearer’s death,
the canines are an “archive of the life history” of a particular
individual. The lower and upper canines document growth
disruptions during the major part of the adult life. This is
quite unique for domestic mammals. Although there are
several papers dealing with enamel defects on recent boars
tusks (
e.g.
Palášthy, Palášthy 1991; Kierdorf, Kierdorf 2003;
Kierdorf
et al.
2004; Konjević
et al.
2006), no author has
discussed the time of onset of these defects. The same is true
for prehistoric and historic fnds of canines of domestic pigs.
This precious body of information is still rarely discussed
in paleopathological literature (
cf.
Teegen 2013, 60–61).
Further studies are required for an assessment of the accurate
monthly developing rate of canines in male domestic (and
wild) pigs.
Acknowledgements
This study was made possible by an exchange programme
of academic teachers between Charles University in Prague
and Ludwig-Maximilians-University in Munich. One of the
authors (WRT) is grateful to the committee who made this
visit possible and in particular to Prof. Dr. Jan Klápště, Chair
of the Department of Archaeology of the Faculty of Arts,
for his invitation and to Doc. Dr. Vladimír Salač who made
the contacts at the Institute of Archaeology of the Academy
of Sciences of the Czech Republic. We would also like to
thank V. Salač for information on the dating of the fnd from
Lovosice – Resslova ulice. This study was supported in part
from RVO: 67985912 (RK).
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